Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

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KKKH4254 PROJEK REKABENTUK II _________________________________________________________________ ___________ TAJUK PROJEK: COURSE OUTCOME & PROGRAMME OUTCOME “PROJEK CAPSTONE BAGI CADANGAN PEMBINAAN PROJEK PEMBINAAN SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEBANGSAAN PUNCAK JALIL” NAMA: MOHD GAZALI BIN ALIMUDDIN NO MATRIK: A128044 JABATAN: JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN AWAM DAN STRUKTUR TAHUN: 4 NAMA PENSYARAH: PROF.IR.DR.WAN HAMIDON BIN WAN BADARUZZAMAN PROF.IR.DR.RIZA ATIQ ABDULLAH BIN O.K.RAHMAT

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Transcript of Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

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KKKH4254 PROJEK REKABENTUK II

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TAJUK PROJEK:

COURSE OUTCOME & PROGRAMME OUTCOME

“PROJEK CAPSTONE BAGI CADANGAN PEMBINAAN PROJEK PEMBINAAN

SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEBANGSAAN PUNCAK JALIL”

NAMA: MOHD GAZALI BIN ALIMUDDIN

NO MATRIK: A128044

JABATAN: JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN AWAM DAN STRUKTUR

TAHUN: 4

NAMA PENSYARAH:

PROF.IR.DR.WAN HAMIDON BIN WAN BADARUZZAMAN

PROF.IR.DR.RIZA ATIQ ABDULLAH BIN O.K.RAHMAT

PROF.MADYA.IR.DR.OTHMAN BIN JAAFAR

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COURSE OUTCOME 1

“Able to identify and describe project site and constraints including existing topography

and terrain, sub-soil conditions, Civil Engineering infrastructure facilities (road and

accessibility, drainage, water supply, and sewerage systems (if any), and elements

important to sustainability development.”

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PROJECT BACKGROUND

The construction project of Puncak Jalil secondary school was estimated to accommodate about

500 students at any one time per session. The location is close to the main campus of the

National University of Malaysia Bangi branch, Teras Jernang Village and Taman Desa Sentosa.

The contract was estimated to be valued at RM 11,470,000.00 and is expected to be

completed within 24 months (2 years) from the date of its construction on May 25, 2013. The

estimated construction area spans was approximately 9,360,000 m2 which is equivalent to 936

hectares and is certainly extensive use of land space.

If viewed from the background of the project area, this area was a virgin forest which the

oil palm and forest shrub that has long been neglected were vegetated. In terms of the appearance

of the ground is moderately high hills, where the highest peak on contour record at 42.68 meters

above sea level and the lowest contour level was recorded at 19.81 meters above sea level. This

project area is located near the Langat river and the nearest residential area are Teras Jernang

Village (1.3 km) and Taman Desa Sentosa (2.2 km).

Figure 1: Topographic maps of the project site area

PROJECT SITE

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Figure 2: Polygon map of the project site area

ACCESSIBILITY

Construction of the proposed project area is adjacent to the road Bangi. This road link between

Jalan Reko and Jalan Kajang-Dengkil. Data on traffic flow in this area is not available because it

would require a long process to get it from the traffic police, road transport department and

public works department. Researchers simply made a statement through observation. Through

the observation, traffic conditions on the road will be crowded during peak hours, from 6 am to 9

am and 5 pm to 7 pm.

Traffic flow will be high in some areas such as the three junction in Figure 3 below. This

is because it connects traffic moves from Kajang or from Bandar Baru Bangi to the Teras

Jernang village and from Dengkil or from teras jernang village to kajang or to Bandar Barru

Bang.. This observation was usually done at random and through researcher experience.

Among the factors that enable high congestion in the area is due to the public facilities

available in the Village Core Jernang. Public facilities available in this area rather draw attention

to the surrounding area. Furthermore, Teras Jernang Village is also close to the area of higher

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education institutions such as the National University of Malaysia Bangi branch and Mara

Polytechnic College. This boost traffic flow at peak times.

Among the public facilities that are available in this area such as food outlets facilities,

photostat centers, workshops, cars and motorcycles, retail shops, mosques, and dormitories to be

occupied by undergraduates and students who live outside of their campus area.

Among other factors which may invite to the increase in traffic flow is caused by factors

existing roads can not cope with the flow of vehicles in and out of traffic at a time, especially

during peak hours. This study suggests that road widening is done. This not only cause problems

to the traffic flow in road but also the safety of the user of the road was a concern. If the

construction project commenced, it is feared the traffic flow rate will also increase due to the

presence of the trucks and construction machines will be in and out through the road.

So in this report, the researcher will be more emphasis on road construction backup to

Puncak Jalil Secondary School Project in terms of the proposed site, construction methods,

construction impact, and sustainability can be proclaimed in this project.

Figure 3: The three junction of Jalan Bangi

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Figure 4: The path to the project site area

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STREAM AND WATER BODIES

The nearest stream and water bodies that can be detected from the site project is Langat river.

This river were flowing from Nuang mountain in the state of Hulu Langat and flowing to the

Straits of Malacca in Kuala Langat. The length of this river is 149.3 km upstream to the mouth of

the river.

There are some towns and villages were built on the banks of the Langat River. Among

them are Dusun Tua, Ulu Langat, Cheras, Kajang, Sungai Chua, Jenderam, Dengkil, Manggis

River, Olak Lempit, Banting, Jenjarom, Teluk Dato, Teluk Panglima Garang and Bandar Baru

Bangi.

Langat River is very important when tin ore became the main industry in the state.

Among the important tin ore area is Sungai Besi, Balakong, Kajang, Sungai Chua, Cheras,

Serdang and Semenyih.

A dam for drinking water have been built at the upstream of Sungai Langat called Sungai

Langat dam or Pongsun dam. Semenyih river is the branch of the Langat River. Both rivers are

heavily polluted at some time ago, especially by sawmill in Cheras and pig feces in Semenyih.

This river was also the main source of raw water to seven water treatment plants in

Selangor that are Sungai Langat Water Treatment Plant, Bukit Tampoi Water Treatment Plant,

Cheras Batu 11 Water Treatment Plant, Salak Tinggi Water Treatment Plant, Sungai Pangsoon

Water Treatment Plant, Sg Serai Water Treatment Plant and Sg LoloWater Treatment Plant.

The process of rapid modernization and development, especially in Selangor, Sungai

Langat water contamination threat is so severe that contribute to the water crisis. According to

reports Malaysia Environmental Quality Report 2006, published by the Department of

Environment, some rivers that flow from the Langat River was contaminated with the Water

Quality Index of rivers is at level III. These rivers are Sungai Balak, Batang Benar, Batang Nilai,

Sungai Lui and Sungai Pajam.

On October 11, 2012, Chief Environmental Modelling Unit, Centre for Environment

Forensic Research (ENFORCE) Universiti Putra Malaysia, Dr Hafizan Juahir states that only

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49.3km from 149.3 km Sungai Langat is still clean. 100 miles further is contaminated and unfit

for drinking water. 100km Langat River is already in grade 3, 4. If the water quality is worse

than this, it is considered as dead river. The main factor pollute this stream is the dry water,

domestic waste and garbage in the river.

Figure 1: Langat River taken from Kajang

Figure 2: Langat River from GIS

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Figure 3: Langat Basin

Figure 4: Sungai Langat branch

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DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Drainage system was designed and built with the intention of discharge water to the lowest

catchment area. Good drainage and efficient to be highly beneficial especially to the process to

control and prevent flooding. The good and efficient drainage will facilitate the flow of water

and reduce the impact of pollution on water quality. It also will prevent natural disasters such as

floods.

The advantages of drainage in road construction, it can reduce the occurrence of water

ponding problems on the road surface. This problem can cause damage to the surface of the road.

This can have a direct effect on the safety of road users and also increase the cost of maintenance

of the roads.

In general, drainage system serves to drain the surface runoff from the buildings, paved

areas, the roads and other impervious area to a safe area such as a river, lake or sea. Good

drainage is essential to protect the interests of economy, social security and certain areas. A good

drainage system must be able to accommodate the amount of runoff received.

Types of Drainage System

There are different types of drainage systems in various forms, but the type of drainage system is

divided into two basic systems that was initiation drainage system and main drainage system

Initiation Drainage System

The initiation drainage system is a system that carries runoff from its specific area. For

example, from housing or industry runoff is brought to the main drain and the main

drainage of runoff draining into the catchment area such as rivers, lakes and seas.

Initiation drainage systems are usually designed for repeated periods of 2 or 5 years

depending on land use planning. The beginning of the drainage system usually includes:

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o Drain or roadside ditch

o Street gutter

o Sewerage

o Water run-off pipe

o Other structures designed to carry runoff

Main Drainage System

The most important municipal drainage system is the main drainage system in which the

effectiveness of a network of a main drainage system is dependent on the planning and

design of main drainage. The main purpose of the main drainage system is the amount of

runoff collector system from the beginning of the drainage system to the river, lake or

sea. The main drainage system designed for repeated periods of 100 years to reduce

damage to life and property due to flooding. The system consists of:

o Natural and man-made drainage

o Underground Drainage

o Drainage on the road

o Other drainage structures

Through observations on the types of drainage in the project area, the type of drainage

there are more to the initiation drainage system type. This type of drainage can be seen at the

roadside of Bangi road. Surface water runoff from the road surface will be routed to the roadside

ditches and it will be drained into the Langat river.

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Figure 6: Example of Drainage implemented in Jalan Bangi

Through observation on the roadside ditch in Jalan Bangi, the drainage was getting

shallow. It might be caused by the soil erosion that occurs at the edge near the side of the road

when heavy rain happened. The water runoff that came from the forest near Jalan Bangi was

bringing the water and also the sediment which lead to this problem.

WATER RESOURCES

Available water resources in the project area is under the purview of the Selangor Water Supply

Company (SYABAS). SYABAS is a state government-linked company in charge of water

supply service in Selangor and the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya. SYABAS

was established on July 8, 1996 under the Malaysian Companies Act 1965. Selangor Water

Management Corporation Berhad (PUAS) are subsidiaries of the company SYABAS. The

executive chairman of SYABAS is Tan Sri Rozali Ismail.

As we know, the distribution water resources can be categorized into three types, namely

a gravity system, pumping system and a combination of gravity and pumping system. SYABAS

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distributed water to each area using the pump system. Water was pump to the consumers from

the Langat River water treatment plant.

Sungai Langat Water Treatment Plant

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT WE MEAN BY

“SUSTAINABILITY”

While many of the definitions offered by other authors or political groups address the three

central and well recognized themes of sustainability (ecology, economy and equity, a.k.a. the

“triple bottom line”), none of these definitions are directly actionable at a project level and are of

little utility when considering sustainability from the perspective of a transportation designer or

contractor. This is for two particular reasons:

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1. Lack of project‐level context and specific tangible constraints, and

2. Lack of incentive or drivers to progress sustainability in a meaningful way.

However, three key broader ideas are consistent in most of the definitions: physical

constraints or laws of Nature (natural laws), satisfaction of basic human needs and desires

(human values), and the idea that roadway projects are best perceived as systems of varying

degrees of complexity, interdependence, scale and context. These three terms are clarified in

detail below.

A useful, implementable definition of sustainability for roadway projects must feature

these three terms because these ideas are simple to understand and explain to project

stakeholders. Importantly, how well a particular project fits these project‐specific natural law and

human value constraints is a characteristic or trait of that system that is measurable (in terms of

quantity and/or quality). This means sustainability on one roadway project can be compared to

other roadway projects, and ultimately, sustainability becomes manageable on both short‐ and

long‐term time scales. Therefore, sustainability is a system characteristic that reflects its capacity

to support natural laws and human values.

NATURAL LAWS

“Natural laws” encompass the essential idea of Ecology, which is the study of ecosystems. These

concepts are illustrated by the simple, but oxymoronic idea that ecosystems are too complex to

be fully controlled or understood by humans, and that our best control and understanding comes

from basic sciences like physics, chemistry and biology. Effectively, mathematics and sciences

are the tools by which we measure the limits and current status of our environment. These

natural laws form the physical constraints within which all projects must fit, regardless of how

much control we think we may have over our own environment as humans or how complete or

certain the science is perceived to be.

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We must understand that our conventional understanding of natural laws is at best

incomplete and at worst could be totally wrong. Humans live and operate within the context of

ecosystems, not vice versa (as indicated by current trends in civil development). The paradigm in

which we live, operate and behave must therefore shift to a more sustainable one under our best

possible and most current understanding of ecology, such as that proposed by The Natural Step

framework, which offers a system‐based approach to sustainability guided by three basic

principles as follows:

Substances should not be extracted from the Earth at a rate faster than they can be

regenerated by natural processes.

Substances (waste) should not be produced at rate faster than they can be decomposed

and reintegrated into an ecosystem.

Ecosystems should not be systematically degraded or otherwise disrupted from

equilibrium by human activities.

Conventional roadway design and construction practices and systems do not support these

three above principles consistently; however, a significant amount of academic and industry

research in a variety of fields indicates that they can.

HUMAN VALUES

Similarly, “human values” (basically Robèrt’s fourth principle) include both

equity and economy. Equity can be broadly understood as seeking quality

of life for all: ultimately this means satisfaction of basic human needs within

a specific cultural context. Human needs have been well studied in

psychology and social sciences. The most prevalent ideas regarding human

needs can be defined by either a hierarchical model, such as that proposed

by Maslow or a taxonomic model. Maslow identified physiological needs,

safety, belonging, esteem and selfactualization as tiers of needs. Max‐Neef

et al. identified nine unique needs that vary according to the process by

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which they are satisfied (being, having, doing, and interacting): subsistence,

protection, affection understanding, participation, leisure, creation, identity,

and freedom. For the sustainability purposes, either psychological model is

fitting to best illustrate the idea of human values. The basic idea is that all

humans have the same needs, the value of these needs can change with

time, and there is a wide variety and varying degree to which needs are

satisfied and managed in different communities and cultures.

There are a number of tradeoffs that occur when meeting more than

one need simultaneously. These societal constraints, including regulations

and policy, govern the idea of Economy, which means, simply, management

of financial, natural, manufactured, and human capital resources. The

concept of economy can be scaled down to apply to project‐level financial

choices or scaled up to more broad practices of resource management such

as sustainable forestry, waste management or carbon cap‐and‐trade

arrangements. Again, however, conventional roadway design and

construction practice does not support these needs, or address their

dynamics and management, consistently on all projects.

SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY

Clearly, a systems‐based approach to sustainability renders a definition that

includes only Ecology, Equity, and Economy incomplete. In addition to these

components, sustainability is context‐sensitive. Specifically, a roadway

project system’s context is sensitive to whatever human needs and values

are defined by the management team and stakeholders and its

environmental setting. These are the constraints, or boundaries, within which

project decisions must be made. Therefore, two more critical sustainability

components, extent and expectations, are identified. These two

components act as the system boundaries, providing scope and context to

sustainability.

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Extent represents the idea that a project system has well‐defined

constraints and limits within which sustainability can be measured. Extent

refers to spatial and temporal constraints of civil projects (such as centerline

length, right of way dimensions, footprint, and service life, respectively)

often explicitly defined by natural laws (such as how gravity ultimately

defines load limits). Some other practical examples of extent are height

restrictions and construction working hours.

Performance criteria, or Expectations, are the key human value

constraints identified for the project. Expectations provide the equity and

economic context within which the overall performance of the system is

most effectively judged. Expectations vary by project and may include

practical performance of the individual design elements, overall quality of

the construction processes of a project, or system‐wide outcomes like

reduced accidents or improved worker productivity.

While the ideas of Extent and Expectations may be implicit (or

presumed to be understood) in the preceding descriptions of natural laws

and human values, there is no reason for them not to be explicitly stated in

working definition of sustainability. In fact, without explicitly stating these

components, it is more likely that misunderstandings of these critical limits,

boundaries, and constraints would occur, or that their impacts and

importance would be ignored or downplayed.

Furthermore, it is not enough to believe that the idea of sustainability

will self‐propagate and implement its own paradigm shift toward more

sustainable systems and practices. Thus, the final two important components

of sustainability, Experience and Exposure, translate the philosophical

concept of sustainability into implementable practices. Experience

represents both what has been learned and the learning process itself, which

is ongoing. So, experience includes technical expertise, innovation, and

knowledge of applicable historical information, which is critical in decision‐making processes. For example, most successful project teams are

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comprised of interdisciplinary experts that can bring specialized experience

to design or construction.

Finally, if the concept of sustainability is to cause a paradigm shift in

individual, community and societal behaviour then it must include an active

educational component; or more specifically, a teaching or outreach

component. Exposure represents the idea that implementing sustainability

in practice requires ongoing educational and awareness programs for the

general public, professionals, agencies, and stakeholders. Therefore,

experience and exposure drive the progress and implementation of

sustainability within a project system. Without these two driving

components, civil engineering systems would remain static, and

sustainability would be absent, unmanageable or simply unrecognized.

COURSE OUTCOME 2

“Able to critically assess and evaluate the project site before coming up with design

concepts and solutions. To include any sign of distress such as erosion, soil condition,

distance to the nearest existing facilities, accessibility, anticipated difficulties, etc.”

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SITE SELECTION

Generally the selection of a site for a project to be carried out, the parties of builder responsible

should do the necessary procedures to ensure the project site in accordance with the requirements

of the construction project to be carried out. One of the procedures or methods to ensure

execution of the project requirements is to perform the site investigation.

SITE INVESTIGATION

A detailed site investigation and comprehensive is necessary at an early stage in the design and

construction of civil engineering works. Site investigation usually depends on the size and type

of projects or work. In fact in certain circumstances (small works) also require site investigation.

Adequate site investigation should be done before a civil engineering work is done.

Sufficient information must be obtained to achieve a safe and economic design, as well as to

avoid any inconvenience during construction. The main purpose of the investigation is;

1. To determine the order of the thickness and area of the side of a layer of soil and bedrock

level, if necessary.

2. To obtain a representative sample of soil (and rocks) for the purpose of identification and

classification, and, if necessary, be used in laboratory tests to determine the appropriate

soil parameters.

3. To identify groundwater conditions. Investigation also included achievement tests in situ

to assess the characteristics of suitable land.

Results of an investigation should provide complete information, for example to

determine the selection of the most appropriate basis for a proposed structure and to indicate if

there would be problems during dredging.

BS5930: 1981 "Code of Practice for Site Investigation"; listed the objectives of the site

investigation such as below:

i. Assess the suitability of the site and surroundings of the proposed work as a whole.

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ii. Help to provide a complete work or design, economical and safe. This includes

temporary works.

iii. To plan the best construction methods, making various surveys of potential problems or

difficulties in construction and thus can provide a solution to the problems that arise.

iv. To obtain information about possible changes in the site and surrounding area either

natural or occur as a result of work done. Also information on the impacts of these

changes on the work of the ongoing construction site area.

v. To obtain a more suitable area where there is construction site area (if there are 2 options

or more). No matter whether in the area of the construction site or at different

construction sites.

In general, site investigation should be completed before the design stage of a project.

However, there are also 'overlapping', especially in massive civil engineering works and usually

involve specific tests that cannot be avoided.

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The selected site construction was as figure above. We are choose this area because it is

easy to access which can lowering the cost of transportation of the machineries and lorries. We

also look and investigate at the condition of the land in the project area. We believed that the

area we choose were less sloping if compared to the other area which is more sloping.

We also choose this area because it is near to jalan Bangi, and we do not want to reclaim

too much to the forest while doing the site clearing process.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Soil classification is usually based on profile attributes, with the land was formed under the same

conditions and have features that are placed in regular classes. Classification and taxonomy now

is important in many disciplines including civil engineering. There are many methods and study

to identification and classification of land was used and done. For particle size analysis,

hydrometer method was used to obtain the content of sand, silt and clay without separating the

land. In addition, to estimate and to get the texture of soil was usually done during the check soil

in the field. Scientists use field methods to obtain multi-layer on the soil texture and differentiate

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between different soil on the landscape. Taken and moistened soil to form a ribbon and the

ribbon shape determined from the nature of the soil texture.

In this project, we will studies the soil classification and analyzing it through the

geological map just like in Figure 7. From the map below we can concluded that the

classification soil in the site project were categorized as a soil that going through the Devonian

event, which is rich in clay subsoil.

Figure 7: Geologic map

Roadwork in clay surface was a big task and responsibilities to be done. This is because the clay soils contained water and the water was a big enemy to the road. If the engineer just built the road on the surface like this, it can cause corrugated (excessive settlement) when the rain came and maybe the subbase also might be swallowed downward.

The solution that could adapt this problem is build some drainage and also see the

material used to contruct the road. The engineer can first dig up the road and replace the sub

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surface of sand and clay with crushed gravel that would not become compacted. The next was to

construct drainage ditches on either side of the road with culverts under the road that would

allow free drainage of the ground water. The drainage is everything here. It is the subsurface

flow of ground water that causes the major damage to a road, paved or gravel. Water has to flow

freely. When the road becomes a dam, the water is forced to the surface where it creates the

washouts, pot holes and quicksand.

Other solution that can be made is by installing a Geogrid such as a copolymer plastic

grid made by Tensar Figure 8, or an equivalent product, first laid down on the prepared clay soil

subgrade, than followed with a fairly thick compacted subbase course of well-graded and drained

gravel. Don't just install a geofabric over the clay because it will deflect and possibly tear.

Eventually it will have severe rutting that mirror images the displacement of the clay subgrade

below. Using the Tensar Geogrid acts like a snowshoe helping to disperse (spread out) vehicle

wheel loads plus it keeps the subbase materials from migrating into the clay subgrade. To

determine the proper geogrid material as well as the subbase gravel material and thickness is

going to take the expertise of a qualified Geotechnical Engineer, who may have to perform field

and laboratory soil testing.

Figure 8: Implementation of Geogrid made by Tensar

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NEAREST EXISTING FACILITIES

The nearest facilities that can be seen near the site construction project was food outlets facilities,

food stalls, photostat centers, cars and motorcycles workshop, retail shops, mosque, dormitories,

and higher learning education centre.

Figure 8: Retail shops

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Figure 9: As-Solihin Mosque

Figure 10: Dormitories

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Figure 11: National University of Malaysia

Figure 12: Poly-Tech Mara College

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COURSE OUTCOME 3

Able to develop and propose design concepts and solutions for infrastructure elements

design that incorporate sustainable development criteria (choice of site, construction

techniques and materials such as the use of Industrialised Building System (IBS) etc.),

economics, health and safety, ethics, etc.

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ROAD CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Road construction requires the creation of a continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic

obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel and may be required to

meet standards set by law or official guidelines. The process is often begun with the removal of

earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of embankments, bridges and tunnels, and

removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) and followed by the laying of pavement

material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building.

After design, approval, planning, legal and environmental considerations have been

addressed alignment of the road is set out by a surveyor. The radii and gradient are designed and

staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut and fill. Great

care is taken to preserve reference Benchmarks.

Roads are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm

drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls

are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed joints in

the road easement with runoff coefficients and characteristics adequate for the land zoning and

storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from

the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to

a watercourse, creek, river or the sea for drainage discharge.

A borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source should be

located near or in reasonable distance to the road construction site. Approval from local

authorities may be required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of materials

for construction needs. The top soil and vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and

stockpiled for subsequent rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area

not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons.

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Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can

begin. Trees in the road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees

should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be

kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be

required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation may be mulched and put aside for

use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation

of newly constructed embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes

filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is

completed will include seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be

consistent with the untouched surrounding areas.

Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling,

compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material is discovered it is

removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to meet the

design requirements (generally 90-95% relative compaction). blasting is not frequently used to

excavate the road bed as the intact rock structure forms an ideal road base. When a depression

must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been

removed. The fill is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is spread then

compacted to specifications, the process is repeated until the desired grade is reached.

General fill material should be free of organics, meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR)

results and have a low plasticity index. The lower fill generally comprises sand or a sand-rich

mixture with fine gravel, which acts as an inhibitor to the growth of plants or other vegetable

matter. The compacted fill also serves as lower-stratum drainage. Select second fill (sieved)

should be composed of gravel, decomposed rock or broken rock below a specified Particle

size and be free of large lumps of clay. Sand clay fill may also be used. The road bed must be

"proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller passes over an area without creating

visible deformation or spring the section is deemed to comply.

Geosynthetics such as geotextiles, geogrids and geocells are frequently used in the

various pavement layers to improve road quality. Geosynthetics perform four main functions in

roads: separation, reinforcement, filtration and drainage; which increase the pavement

performance, reduce construction costs and decrease maintenance.

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The completed road way is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other

natural surface. The type of road surface is dependent on economic factors and expected

usage. Safety improvements like Traffic signs, Crash barriers, Raised pavement markers, and

other forms of Road surface marking are installed.

SCOPE OF ROADWORK

The main scope of road construction works are: -

Cleaning of site Work surveying / setting out Work clay excavation, cut, reclaimed Treatment of soil Construction of road structure Build a bridge Building drainage system Build a retaining wall Construction of slope protection Install / hold street furniture Install street lighting / traffic lights Environmental management Traffic Management

ROUTE LOCATION

For the project which is totally new road, a study shall be made on the various alternative

alignments to determine the most feasible one. The route can be determined with the assistance

of one or more of the following:

I. Topographic sheet.

II. Aerial photographs.

III. Existing and future development plans from the Town Planning Department.

IV. Revenue sheet.

V. Design and /or as-built plans of the existing road in the case of road improvement.

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In determining the route the engineer shall take into consideration factors such as the

ground terrain, waterways, existing properties and subsoil conditions. An estimate of the length

of the road in kilometer shall also be made.

Where the final alignment of the proposed road or improvement is not yet determined,

the Consulting Engineer shall undertake field reconnaissance and preliminary surveys, etc. to

determine the best corridor for an alignment and shall proposed several alternative routes for

selection. The routes shall be selected according to topographic, geologic, economic and social-

political factors.

Besides, when there is no feasibility study carried out for the project, the engineer shall

determine the most suitable alignment. Preliminary ground survey need not be carried out if as

built-up plans available. If such plans are available, the engineer can proceed on to the design of

the final horizontal alignment.

SELECTION OF FINAL ALIGNMENT CONTROL

The chosen alignment shall follow closely where practicable, the alignment of the

existing road so as to keep the cost to the minimum and also for the various following reasons:

I. Avoid additional land acquisition.

II. Keep to a minimum any adverse impact on social, environmental aspects. Reutilized

existing bridges, culverts, drain structures and even pavement wherever possible.

III. Minimize relocation of public utilizes and in particular the high tension transmission

towers, which may not be relocatable in many cases.

The Engineer shall check and ensure that his design satisfy the minimum requirement of

the following geometric element:

I. Stopping sight distance.

II. Passing sight distance.

III. Transition length.

IV. Minimum radius.

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LAND ACQUISITION PLAN

The consulting Engineer is responsible for preparing land acquisition plans to enable the

client to acquire the necessary right-of-way. The plans shall be of a scale accepted by the Land

Office and must define clearly the limits of the right-of-way required by the project. The land

acquisition plan shall include details of Lot Numbers and areas of each individual lot that has to

be acquired and coloured appropriately in accordance with the requirement of the Land Office.

The surveyor shall compile and prepare base plans for property and land acquisition

proposes from the Survey Department cadastral sheet and latest revenue sheets from the Land

Office and other Government land scheme agencies where relevant to the same scale.

ROAD CLASSIFICATION / HIERARCHY

The Importance of Road Classification

The importance of defining a hierarchy of roads is that it can help clarify policies

concerning the highway aspects of individual planning decisions on properties served by the road

concerned. Furthermore specific planning criteria could be developed and applied according to a

road’s designation in the hierarch: for example design speed, width of carriageway, control over

pedestrian, intersections, frontage access etc. In this way the planning objectives would be clear

for each level of road in the hierarchy and policies on development control and traffic

management would reinforced one another.

Functions of Road

Each road has its function according to its role either in the National Network, /regional

Network, State Network or City/Town Network. The most basic function of a road is

transportation. This can be further divided into sub-functions; namely mobility and accessibility.

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However, these two sub-functions are in trade off. To enhance one, the other must be limited. In

rural areas, roads are divided into five categories, namely:

Expressway.

Highway.

Primary Road.

Secondary Road.

Minor Road.

While in the urban areas, roads are divided into four categories, namely:

Expressway.

Arterial.

Collector.

Local street.

Road Category and Their Application

Categories of roads in Malaysia are defined by their general functions as follows:

a) Expressway

An Expressway is a divided highway for through traffic with full control of access and

always with grade separations at all intersections.

In rural areas, they apply to the interstate highways for through traffic and form

the basic framework of National road transportation for fast travelling. They serve long

trips and provide higher speed of travelling and comfort. To maintain this, they are fully

access controlled and are designed to the highest standards. In urban areas, they form the

basis framework of road transportation system in urbanized area for through traffic. They

also serve relatively long trips and smooth flow and with full access control and

complements the Rural Expressway.

b) Highway

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They constitute the interstate national network for intermediate traffic volumes and

complements the expressway network. They usually link up directly or indirectly the

Federal Capital, State Capitals, large urban centres and points of entry/exit to the country.

They serve long to intermediate trip lengths. Speed of travel is not as important as in an

Expressway but relatively high to medium speed is necessary. Smooth traffic is provided

with partial access control.

c) Primary Roads

They constitute the major roads forming the basic network of the road transportation

system within a state. They serve intermediate trip length and medium travelling speeds.

Smooth traffic is provided with partial access control. They usually link the State Capitals

and district Capitals or other Major Towns.

d) Secondary Roads

They constitute the major roads forming the basic network of the road transportation

system within a District or Regional Development Areas. They serve intermediate trip

lengths with partial access control. They usually link up the major towns within the

District or Regional Development Area.

e) Minor Roads

They apply to all roads other than those described above in the rural areas. They form the

basic road network within a Land Scheme or other sparsely populated rural area. They

also include roads with special functions such as holiday resort roads, security roads or

access roads to microwave stations. The serve mainly local traffic with short trip lengths

with no access control.

f) Arterials

An arterial is a continuous road within partial access control for through traffic within

urban areas. Basically it conveys traffic from residential areas to the vicinity of the

central business district or from one part of a city to another which does not intend to

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penetrate the city centre. Arterials do not penetrate identifiable neighbourhoods. Smooth

traffic flow is essential since it carries large traffic volumes.

g) Collector

A collector road is a road with partial access control designed to serve as a collector or

distributor of traffic between the arterial and the local road systems. Collector are the

major roads which penetrate and serve identifiable neighbourhoods, commercial areas

and industrial areas.

h) Local Streets

The local street system is the basic road network within neighbourhood and serves

primarily to offer direct access to abutting land. They are links to the collector road and

thus serve short trip lengths. Through traffic should be discouraged.

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Area Road

Categories

Trip Length Design Volume Speed Network

Long Med Short Hig

h

Med Low Hig

h

Med Low

Rural Expressway National

Network

Highway National

Network

Primary

Road

State

Network

Secondary

Road

District

Network

Minor Road Supporting

Network

Urban Expressway National

Network

Arterial Major

Links to

Urban

Centres

Collector Major

Streets to

Urban

Centres

Local Street Minor

Streets/

Town

Network

Table 1: Characteristic of Road Categories

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Application of Design Standards for Roads

The design standard is classified into six groups (R6, R5, R4, R3, R2, R1) for rural areas

and into six groups (U6, U5, U4, U3, U2, U1) for urban areas. Each of these standards are listed

below with descending order of hierarchy.

a) Standard R6/U6: Provides the highest geometric design standards for rural or urban

areas. They usually serve long trips with high travelling speed of travelling, comfort and

safety. It is always designed with divided carriageways and with full access control. The

Rural and Urban Expressway falls under this standard.

b) Standard R5/U5: Provides high geometric standards and serve intermediate trip lengths

with medium travelling speeds. It is usually with partial access control. The Highway,

Primary Road and Arterial fall under this standard. It is sometimes designed as divided

carriageways with partial access control.

c) Standard R4/U4: Provides medium geometric standards and serve intermediate trip

lengths with medium travelling speeds. It is also usually with partial access control. The

Primary Road, Secondary Road, Minor Arterial and Major Collector fall under this

standard.

d) Standard R3/U3: Provides low geometric standard and serves mainly local traffic. There

is partial or no access control. The Secondary Road, Collector or Major Local Streets are

within this standard.

e) Standard R2/U2: Provides low geometric standards for two way flow. It is applied only

to local traffic with low volumes of commercial traffic. The Minor Road and Local

Streets fall under this standard.

f) Standard R1/U1: Provides the lowest geometric standards and is applied to road where

the volumes of commercial vehicles are very low in comparison to passenger traffic. The

travelling speed is 40 kph or less. In cases where commercial traffic is not envisaged such

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as private access road in low cost housing area, the geometry standards could be lowered

especially the lane width and gradient.

ACCESS CONTROL

Degree of Control

Access control is the condition where the right of owners or occupants of abutting land or

other person to access, in connection with a road is fully or partially controlled by the public

authority.

Control of access is usually classified into three types for its degree of control, namely full

control, partial control and non-control of access.

a) Full Control of Access means that the preference s given to through traffic by providing

access connecting with selected public roads only and by prohibiting crossing at grade or

direct private driveway connections. The access connections with public roads varies

from 2 km in the highly developed central business area to 8 km in the sparsely

developed urban fringes.

b) Partial Control of Access means that preference is given to through traffic to a degree

that in addition to access connection with selected public roads, there may be some

crossing trafficked. The spacing of at-grade intersections preferably signalized may vary

from 0.4 km to 1.0 km.

To compensate for the limited access to fully or partially access controlled roads,

frontage or service roads are sometimes provided along side of the main roads.

c) In Non-Control Access, there is basically no limitation of access.

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Selection of Access Control

The selection of the degree of control required is important so as to preserve the as-built capacity

of the road as well as improve safety to all road users. Two aspects pertaining to the degree of

control is to be noted.

a) During the time of design in the consideration of accesses to existing developments.

b) After the completion of the road in the control of accesses to future developments.

The selection of degree of access control depends on traffic volumes, function of the road and

the road network around the areas.

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DESIGN STANDARDS AND CRITERIA

Geometric Designs for Road Works

The Road design Standards and procedures adopted for the geometric design will be

based on Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR). General Summary Table of Geometric Design Criteria for

Roads in Urban Areas shown in the JKR Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86 (AT 8/86), ‘A Guide on

Geometric Design of Roads’ will be used for the design. All the values shown in the summary

table are minimum or maximum values. All efforts should be made to achieve possible desirable

values. The actual design values adopted for the roads should be more than the minimum

requirements or less than the maximum requirements. Table below shows the geometric design

criteria which were extracted from the AT 8/86 for the Minor Roads.

Element Unit Minor Road

Design Speed km/h 40.0Lane Width m 2.75

Shoulder Width m 1.5Shoulder Width (Structures > 100m) m 0.5

Median Width (Minimum) m N/AMedian Width (Desirable) m N/A

Marginal Strip Width m 0.0Minimum Reserve Width m 20.0Stopping Sight Distance m 45.0Passing Sight Distance m 300

Minimum Radius m 60Minimum Length of Spiral m N/AMaximum Super-elevation Ratio 0.06

Maximum Grade (Desirable) % 8Maximum Grade % 12

Crest Vertical Curve (K) - 10Sag Vertical Curve (K) - 10

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Design Speed

Design speed for the proposed road is 40 km/h. design speed is the maximum safe speed

that can be maintained over a specific section of the road when conditions are so favorable that

the design features of the road govern. The assumed design speed should be a logical one with

respect to the topography, the adjacent land use and the type of road. Every effort should be

made to use as high a design speed as practicable while maintaining the desired degree of safety,

mobility and efficiency.

Horizontal Alignment

The alignment for roads will follow the road network as shown in the layout plan.

Adjustments where necessary will be reviewed to suit topography and platform level of adjacent

development areas in obtaining the desirable alignments and profiles of the roads and the

locations and configuration of the intersections.

The Table 2 of AT 8/86 shows the minimum radius to be adopted in urban areas for a

particular design speed and a particular maximum super-elevation rate. The minimum radius to

be adopted for a design speed of 40 km/h in urban area is 60 m. However, all efforts should be

made to design curves with radii larger than the minimum value for greater comfort and safety.

The spiral lengths are normally calculated from the spiral formula or from the empirical

super-elevation runoff lengths. The spiral length and super-elevation rate for the road for a

particular design speed will be referred from the Table 3 of AT 8/86. The length of super-

elevation runoff shall not exceed a longitudinal slope of 1:200. However all efforts should be

made to use longer spiral lengths than shown in the table.

The maximum super-elevation rate will generally be adopted for the design of roads as

specified in the Clause 4.2.2 of AT 8/86. The super-elevation rates gradually change along a

curve of the road. A maximum super-elevation rate of 0.06 shall be adopted for the design.

It is necessary to establish the proper relation between the design speed and curvature and

also their joint relations with super-elevation and side friction in the design of horizontal curves.

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The maximum rates of super-elevation usable are controlled by several factors such as climatic

conditions, terrain features and frequency of slow moving vehicle. Table 2 shows the value of

minimum radius for various design speed.

Table 2: Minimum Radius

Design Speed

km/h

Minimum Radius (m)

e = 0.06 e = 0.10

120 710 570

100 465 375

80 280 230

60 150 125

50 100 85

40 60 50

30 35 30

20 15 15

Vertical Alignment

The maximum grade controls in terms of design speed were summarized in the Table 6

of AT 8/86. According to the above mentioned table the desirable maximum grade and the

maximum grade for a particular design speed will be adopted. The desirable maximum grade is

4% and the maximum grade is 7%. The maximum grade used for the roads should be p[referable

gentler than the maximum desirable grade. It was stated in the Clause 4.3.2 of At 8/86 that a

desirable minimum grade of 0.5% should be used for better roadside drainage. It was further

stated that a grade of 0.35% might be allowed where a high type pavement accurately crowned is

used.

Vertical curves are used to provide a smooth and gradual change between two intersecting

tangent grades for comfortable and safe maneuvers. The length of a vertical curve (L) divided by

the percentile algebraic difference in grades (A) is termed as k value which is used in

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determining the horizontal distance from the beginning of the vertical curve to the apex of a crest

curve or low point of a sag curve. Different k values will be used to determine the minimum

lengths of sag and crest curves for various design speeds. The Table 4 and the Table 5 of AT

8/86 show the minimum k value for crest and sag curves respectively for various design speeds.

However larger k values than the minimum should be used frequently in the establishment of

vertical curves to ensure greater comfort and safety. The vertical profile of road affects the

performance of vehicles.

Table 4 & 5: Minimum k value

Design Speed km/h 120 100 80 60 50 40 30 20

Minimum k value (crest) 120 60 30 15 10 10 5 5

Minimum k value (sag) 60 40 28 15 12 10 8 8

Table 6: Maximum Grades

Design Speed

km/h

Desirable Maximum Grade

%

Maximum Grade

%

120 2 5

100 3 6

80 4 7

60 5 8

50 6 9

40 7 10

30 8 12

20 9 15

RS R1a 10 25

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The critical grade length indicates the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon

which a loaded truck can operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed (refer Table 7).

Three assumption were made to established the design value for critical grade:

I. The weight power ration of a loaded truck is 300 lb/hp.

II. The average running speed as related to design speed is used to approximate the speed of

vehicles beginning and uphill climb.

III. Maximum reduction in speed to half the design speed is allowed for design speed of 80

km/h or above while for design speed of 50 and 40 km/h are 30 and 25 km/h respectively.

Table 7: Critical Grade Length

Design Speed

km/h

Gradient

%

Critical Grade Length

m

120 3 500

4 400

5 300

100 4 500

5 400

6 300

80 5 500

6 400

7 300

60 6 300

7 250

8 200

50 7 250

8 200

9 170

40 8 200

9 170

10 150

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Stopping Sight Distance

The stopping sight distance is the length required to enable a vehicle traveling at or near

the design speed to stop before reaching an object in its path. The minimum stopping sight

distance is acquired by the sum of the distance traversed by a vehicle from the instant the driver

sights an object for which a stop is necessary, to the instant the brakes are applied and the

required distance to stop the vehicle after the brakes application begins. Table 8 from the Arahan

Teknik (Jalan) 8/86 shows the minimum stopping sight distance for various design speed.

Table 8: Minimum SSD

Design Speed

km/h

Minimum SSD

m

120 285

100 205

80 140

60 85

50 65

40 45

30 30

20 20

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Passing Sight Distance

Most roads in rural areas are two-lanes two ways on which vehicles frequently overtake

slower moving vehicles, the passing of which must be accomplished on a lane regularly used by

the opposing traffic. Passing sight distance for use in design should be determined on the basis of

the length needed to safety complete a normal passing maneuver. The minimum passing sight

distance for two-lane highway is determined as the sum of four distances: distances traversed

during the perception and reaction time and during the initial acceleration to the point of

encroachment on the passing lane; distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the

passing lane; distance between the passing vehicles at the end of its maneuver and the opposing

vehicle; and distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-third of the time the passing

vehicle occupies the passing lane. Table 9 shows the minimum passing sight distance with

various design speed.

Table 9: Minimum PSD

Design Speed

km/h

Minimum PSD

120 800

100 700

80 550

60 450

50 350

40 300

30 250

20 200

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Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance

There are two criteria applied in determining the sight the distance height of driver’s eye

where the eyes of the average driver in a passenger vehicle are considered to be 0.92 m above the

road surface; and the height of the object where a height of 0.15 m is assumed for the measuring

stopping sight distance and the height of object for passing sight distance is 1.32 m both

measured from the road surface.

Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Horizontal and vertical alignment should not be designed independently. They

complement each other. Excellence in their design and in the design of their combination

increase utility and safety, encourage uniform speed, and improve appearance, almost always

without additional cost.

There are several controls apply for proper combination of horizontal alignment and

profile (vertical alignment):

I. Curvature and grades should be in proper balance.

II. Vertical Curvature superimposed upon horizontal curvature or vice versa.

III. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of pronounced

crest vertical curve.

IV. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the low point of a

pronounced sag vertical curve.

V. On 2 lane roads the need for safe passing sections at frequent intervals and for an

appreciable percentage of the length of the road often supersedes the general desirability

for combination of horizontal and vertical alignment.

VI. Horizontal curvature and profile should be made as flat as feasible at intersections where

sights distance along both roads is important and vehicles may have to allow down or

stop.

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VII. Variation in the width of median and the use of separate profiles and horizontal

alignments on divided roads should be considered to derive design and operational

advantages of one-way roadways.

Cross Section Elements

Pavement Surface

The selection of the pavement type is determined by the volume and composition of

traffic, soil characteristic, weather, availability of materials, the initial cost and the overall annual

maintenance throughout the service life cost. The important characteristic of surface type in

relation to geometric design are the ability of a surface to retain the shape and dimensions, the

ability to drain, and the effect on driver’s behavior. Table 10 gives general selection of the

pavement surface types for the various road standards.

Table 10: Pavement Surface Type

Design Standard Pavement Type Description

R6/U6 H/H Asphaltic Concrete/Concrete

R5/U5 H/H Asphaltic Concrete/Concrete

R4/U4 I/H Dense Bituminous

Macadam/Asphaltic

concrete/Concrete

R3/U3 L/I Bituminous

Macadam/Concrete

R2/U2 L/I Surface Treatment/Semigrout

R1/U1 L/I Earth Gravel/Semigrout

R1a/U1a L Surface Treatment/Semigrout

H: High Type PavementI: Intermediate Type PavementL: Low Type Pavement

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Normal Cross Slope

Cross slope are an important element in the cross section design and a reasonably steep

lateral slope is desirable to minimize water pounding on flat section of uncurbed pavement due

to pavement imperfection or unequal settlements and to control the flow of water adjacent to the

curb on curbed pavement (refer Table 11).

Table 11: Normal Pavement Cross Slope

Surface Type Cross Slope rate

%

High 2.5

Intermediate 2.5-3.5

Low 2.5-6.0

Lane Width and Marginal Strips

Lane width and the condition of the pavement surface are the most important features of

a road pertaining to the safety and comfort of driving. The capability of a highway is markedly

affected by the lane width and in capacity sense; the effective width of a traveled way is further

reduced when adjacent obstructions such as retaining walls, bridge piers and parked cars restrict

the lateral clearance.

Marginal strip is a narrow pavement strip attached to both edge of a carriageway. It is

paved to the same standard as the pavement structures. The marginal strip is included as part of

the shoulder width and is demarcated from the through lane by lane edge markings on the

marginal strip. Table 12 shows the dimension for lane width and marginal strip for various roads

standard.

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Table 12: Lane and Marginal Strip Width

Design Standard Lane Width

m

Marginal Strip Width

m

R6/U6 3.50 0.50

R5/U5 3.50 0.50

R4/U4 3.25 0.25

R3/U3 3.00 0.25

R2/U2 2.75 0.00

R1/U1 (5.00) 0.00

R1a/U1a (4.50) 0.00

(): Denotes the total two-way lane width

Shoulder

A shoulder is the portion of the roadway continuous with the traveled way for

accommodation of stopped vehicle, for emergency use and for lateral support of the pavement.

The normal usable shoulder width that should be provided along high type facilities is considered

3m. However, a minimum usable shoulder width of 0.6m should be considered in cases where

the usable width is not feasible like in difficult terrain and on low volume roads.

All shoulder should be sloped sufficiently to rapid drain surface water but not to the

extent that vehicular use would be hazardous. Because the type of shoulder construction has a

bearing on the cross slope, the two should be determined jointly. Bituminous surface shoulder

should be slope from 2 to 6 percent. Table 13 shows the dimension for road shoulders.

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Table 13: Shoulder Width

Design Standard

(Rural)

Usable Shoulder Width (m)

Terrain

Flat Rolling Mountainous

R6 3.00 3.00 2.50

R5 3.00 3.00 2.50

R4 3.00 3.00 2.00

R3 2.50 2.50 2.00

R2 2.00 2.00 1.50

R1 1.50 1.50 1.50

R1a 1.50 1.50 1.50

Design Standard

(Urban)

Usable Shoulder Width (m)

Area Type

I II III

R6 3.00 3.00 2.50

R5 3.00 3.00 2.50

R4 3.00 2.50 2.00

R3 2.50 2.00 1.50

R2 2.00 1.50 1.50

R1 1.50 1.50 1.50

R1a 1.50 1.50 1.50

PAVEMENT DESIGN

A layered flexible pavement structure consists of sub-bas course, base course, dense

bituminous macadam, binder course and wearing course. The minimum thickness of each layer

will be derived for the structural stability of the pavement to cater the forecasted traffic flow for

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a specified design period. The thickness of layers will be based on the design California Bearing

Ratio (CBR) of the sub-grade material and the design total equivalent standard axles (ESA). The

pavement will be designed for a design period of 10 years with provision of strengthening the

pavement by overlay after ten years.

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

Signing and markings are directly related to the design of the road and are features of

traffic control and operation that must be considered in the geometric design of highway. The

signing and marking should be designed concurrently with the geometric as an integral part, and

this will reduce significantly the possibility of future operational problems.

Road Marking

Road Marking and delineation are used to regulate traffic or to warn or guide road users.

They may be used either alone or to supplement other traffic control devices. Road marking shall

be uniform in design, position and application to enable them to be recognized and understood

immediately by road users. Markings which must be visible at night shall be reflectorized unless

ambient allumination assures adequate visibility. All markings on high ways shall be

reflectorized. Even on well-lighted town and streets it is generally desirable that markings which

must be visible at night reflectorized. Road pavement may be marked by one or more of the

following materials:

I. Paint.

II. Thermoplastics.

III. Preformed Tapes.

Traffic Signs

The purpose of traffic signs is to help to ensure the safe and informed operation of every

road user on the highways. Traffic signs are to regulate, warn, or guide road users. They are

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essential where special regulations apply at specific times only or where hazards are not self-

evident. They also give information as to highway routes, directions, destinations and places of

interest. The critical factors in meeting the greatest efficiency of traffic signs are color, shape and

size used, layout of its face, its position and illumination or reflectorization.

Traffic Signals

Traffic control signals are devices that control vehicular and pedestrian traffic by

assigning the right of way to various movement for certain pretimed or traffic actuated interval

of time. They are one of the key elements in the function of many urban roads and should be

integrated with the geometric design so as to achieve optimum operational efficiency.

INTERSECTION

Intersection is located where two or more through road come across each other. The main

consideration in designing a junction is the turning radius of vehicle. Turning at junction should

be designed to accommodate such turning radius of vehicle for easy movement of the vehicle

without causing any hazards to the opposing vehicle at the junction. The summary of vehicle

dimension for design consideration is shown in Table 14. Detail design of junction should be

referred to Arahan Teknik 11/87.

Table 14: Design Vehicle Dimensions

Design Vehicle Dimension (m) Turning

Radius

(m)

Type Symbol Wheel

Base

Overhang Overall

Length

Overall

Width

Height

Front Rear

Passenger

Car

P 3.4 0.9 1.5 5.8 2.1 1.3 7.3

Single Unit

Truck

SU 6.1 1.2 1.8 9.1 2.6 4.1 12.8

Truck WB-50 7.9 0.9 0.6 16.7 2.6 4.1 13.7

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Combinatio

n

Relocation of Services

The consulting Engineer shall make a survey of the existing utility services and lialise

closely with the authorities concerned on the proposed future relocation of such services. The

Engineer shall put up detailed plans and proposals for the relocation of these services if affected

by the proposed work.

HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES AND DRAINAGE DESIGN

Road drainage facilities provide for carrying water across the right of way and for

removal of storm water from the road itself. These facilities include bridges, culverts, channels,

gutters and various types of drains. Drainage design considerations are an integral part of

geometric design and flood plain encroachments frequently affect the highway alignment and

profile.

The cost of drainage is neither incidental nor minor on most roads. Careful attention to

requirements for adequate drainage and protection of the highway from floods in all phase of

location and design will prove to be effective to reducing costs in both construction and

maintenance. In general, references shall be made to ‘Urban Stormwater Management Manual

for Malaysia’, which published by the Department of Irrigation and Drainage of Malaysia.

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ROADWAY LIGHTING

Proper application of the fixed lighting principles and techniques shall be used to ensure

that visibility provided on the roads will provide economic and social benefits to the public

which includes:

I. Reduction in night accidents and attenuate human misery and economic loss.

II. Aid to police protection.

III. Facilitation of flow of traffic.

IV. Promotion of business and industry, during night hours.

V. Inspiration for community growth.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT FOR ROAD PROJECTS

Introduction

Like people, most organizations are heavily dependant on roads to distribute their goods & to

carry their executives and sales people. Yet, though once seen as the engine of progress, roads

are facing increasing criticism around the world. A road is a main road for travel by the public

between important destinations, such as cities, large towns, and states. Road designs vary widely

and can range from a two-lane road without margins to a multi-lane, grade-separated

expressway, freeway, or motorway.

Impact due to construction of roads include the noise and dust from construction, the use

of non-renewable aggregates, the loss of natural habitats and green space and increase in traffic

(with all its impacts). The best practice is to undertake an environmental impact assessment

(EIA) before the road is designed.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is defined as “the process of examining the

environmental effects of the development - from consideration of the environmental aspects at

design stage, through to the preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement, evaluation of the

EIS by a competent authority and the subsequent decision as to whether the development should

be permitted to proceed, also encompassing public response to that decision”.

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The EIA methodology promotes a practical and dynamic process of environmental

protection that allows significant adverse impacts to be avoided or mitigated throughout the

entire planning and design process. Road planning and design is an iterative process where

planning and design evolve in response to environmental and other considerations. This ensures

that environmental considerations become an integral part of the overall route corridor selection

and road scheme planning and design process.

Anticipated Impacts Due to Road Construction Project

Encroachment on precious ecology

The proposed routing of the road encroaches upon precious ecological resources,

including forests and swamps. This also disturbs the natural habitats of a lot of creatures

and animals leaving on the encroach land. The ecological disturbance is likely to occur.

The construction activities will drive some wildlife away from their habitats,

particularly migratory birds. The construction period will last for quite a long time (3-4

years) and many migratory birds within about 500 m of the proposed expressway will

leave their currently roosting and feeding places and move away.

During road construction, the vegetation on the acquired land will be destroyed,

and the local ecosystem is changed. In addition, the destruction and fragmentation effect

of the road construction may diminish the habitats for some of the animal species, so that

there may not be enough roosting places any more for them to survive.

During operation, the traffic noise, traffic lights at night and vehicle emissions

may cause some adverse impacts on the wildlife around the road.

Adverse impact on historical/cultural monuments

The nearby structures to road projects are adversely affected due to the pollution and

environmental disturbances created by the project. During the construction phase, huge

amount of CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) and CO (Carbon Monoxide) gases are released into the

atmosphere. The gas poses a threat to ancient monuments as they are made up of lime

which reacts with these gases in presence of water/moisture.

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Impairment of fisheries/ aquatic ecology and other beneficial water uses

The water bodies like lake, pond or river which are close to the road site get affected by

the construction activity. The workers and staff living near to the site uses the water from

these water bodies and in turn pollute them causing harm to aquatic ecology. The rain

water may wash away the chemicals and other hazardous product to the water body

affecting the oxygen content of it. This will lead to impairment of fisheries.

Water quality

The Project will involve the construction of small and large bridges, which will be built

with hollow piers and deep foundations with bored piles. The pile drilling operation will

generate a great amount of spoil of water.

Major sources of potential water pollution were identified as

I. Increased soil erosion during construction, which may cause water pollution with

sedimentation.

II. Wastewater pollution caused by large construction sites, in particular bridge

construction.

III. Potential pollution associated with the construction of bridge foundations with

bored piles.

IV. Pollution caused by surface runoff and service area wastewater.

Water quality impacts due to construction sites

Wastewater and hazardous materials (fuel, oil, acids, caustics, etc.) may drain into

streams and drainage areas, causing pollution to surface water or groundwater. This is

particularly true for large construction sites, construction campsites, and staging areas

where workers, construction equipment, and building materials are most concentrated.

a) Expressway Runoff: Rainwater washes out atmospheric pollutants, picks up roadway

deposits, and runs off into rivers. The impact of the initial runoff pollutants on the

water quality

b) Wastewater Effluent from the Service Area: There will be fuelling and service

stations as well as offices, hotels, and restaurants for the passengers in the service

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area. Sanitary wastewater effluent from these facilities as well as wastewater

generated by car washing, maintenance, and repair operations will be generated.

Erosion and Siltation

The wearing away, detachment and transportation of soil from one place to another place

and its deposition by moving water, blowing wind or other causes is called soil erosion.

Large numbers of trees and plantation has to be removed for construction of road. This

leads to loosing of the soil, soil disturbance, and exposure of bare soil surface. This

causes problem of soil erosion and siltation during rain or heavy wind. The most severe

problems will be associated with embankment construction in the plain area, road

sections with heavy cuts and fills, borrow and spoil sites, as well as bridge and culvert

construction sites, particularly on rainy days.

Environmental aesthetics

Roads project involves cutting of trees, soil filling and cutting operation. This disturbs the

natural aesthetic of the environment (scenic value). Some expressway components like

large bridges and interchanges will create visual impacts and detract from the natural

beauty of the area. The lack of resurfacing/ replanting of exposed areas are also the

leading factor to aesthetic reduction.

Noise and Vibration

During the construction stage massive equipments like excavators, power shovels,

dumpers, compacters, loader etc are used. This causes considerable vibrations in nearby

areas. They also produce high noise levels. This all disturbs the natural surroundings and

creates unfavourable conditions for the living creatures. The vibrations may affect the

structures nearby.

Air pollution hazards

The project results in discharge of air pollutants from machines and motor vehicles,

especially carbon monoxide, which under adverse conditions could cause severe air

pollution hazards to nearby area and communities.

a) Air Quality Impacts during Operation

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If project area is a non-attainment area for TSP and CO, with their background

concentrations well exceeding the applicable air quality standards. The vehicle

emissions and fugitive dust emissions from the expressway will add to the

problem.

b) Air Quality Impacts during Construction

Construction activities particularly earthworks; increased traffic and the use of

cement, asphalt, and other building materials will produce excessive airborne dust

and toxic asphalt fumes, causing a major impact on air quality within the project

area. It was observed that the TSP concentration at a distance 50 m to the leeward

of a concrete mixing plant can be 1.368 mg/Nm3, & 0.619 mg/Nm3 at 100 m.

Road run-off pollution

Surface runoff from roads may contain sufficient petroleum drippage plus spilled

material (including toxic and hazardous materials) which can adversely affect aquatic

ecology and environmental aesthetics.

Effect on Natural resources

The Project will disrupt some existing irrigation systems, particularly in the plain areas

where the road will be constructed on filled-up embankment. This fragmentation will also

affect the existing flood-relief channels and natural drainage of the area.

Land Acquisition

o The loss in agricultural products due to farm land decrease

o Another extra land is needed during the construction period for temporary use

(construction camp sites, staging areas, access roads, borrow and spoil sites, etc.)

o Some buildings will be demolished and wire poles will be removed, and one small

enterprise may be moved.

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Remedies

The environmental impact caused due to road project can be reduced by adopting following

measures:

o Removing only the necessary vegetation; applying for permits to cut down trees.

Revegetation of green areas.

o Make up embankments. Disposal of surplus earth. Disposal of waste (Plan for processing

solid and liquid waste).

o Performing of the cultural heritage protection plan. Covering or dampening uncovered

soils.

o Green areas, ornate. Maintenance. Soil protection. Water protection.

o Wastewater effluents from the service area will be treated by a chemical and biological

treatment system in accordance with applicable standards before discharge into the

nearby irrigation system.

o To minimize the visual impacts, the following measures will be taken:

Minimize cut and fill slopes where possible and, in particular, avoid steep cut

slopes;

Implement site-specific landscaping and re-vegetation on both sides of the road, all

cut slopes, and disturbed land, making the expressway a beautiful green corridor;

and

Design bridges, interchanges, and do their infrastructure in such a way as to achieve

consistency with the surrounding natural landscape, local buildings, and facilities in

terms of form, colour, and texture.

o To minimize the nighttime noise impacts, noise suppressors will be used on construction

equipment where feasible. High noise machinery will not be allowed to operate in the

proximity of a school when classes are in session, and also from 22:00 to 6:00 hrs when

there are residential areas nearby.

o Establish greenbelt between the road and the villages and school to reduce noise level and

air pollution during operation.

o To minimize the dust impact, construction fields and major access roads and haul roads

will be watered on a set schedule, particularly in the dry season. Construction materials

storage and concrete mixing plants will be sited more than 100 m away, and asphalt

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mixing plants 300 m away in a downwind direction from residences and schools. All the

mixing equipment will be closed systems with dust extractors.

NECESSITY OF QUALITY ASSURANCE

The main objectives of road construction are to provide a comfortable and save facility to the

public particularly to the road user. With the huge amount of money spent for the construction of

new roads, the understanding of necessity of achieving required construction quality is very

much crucial in order to ensure the structural and the functionality of the constructed roads or

facilities last within design life. In Malaysia, the quality assurance in the road construction very

much covered at all level i.e. beginning from the planning design and construction as well as

during maintenance stage.

For instant, the requirement of having a proper planning is very important i.e. the road

authority must carry out proper detail study on the proposed location in terms of overall event or

development nearby as well as development of other agencies like housing and business that will

link to the new proposed construction road.

Ideally in the design stage, the designer will consider all necessary aspects of the road

geometry and structure of the pavement that comply with the approved design guideline,

specification or technical notes. Upon compliance to these documents, the confident level of

producing high quality of road will be achieved. But at certain circumstances i.e. budget

constraint, certain criteria in the design especially which is related to the geometry has to be left

out or compromised. This compromisation should be done carefully in order to avoid occurrence

of lacking of safety aspect of the particular road.

Quality assurance during construction considered to be the most critical part in whole

cycle of road construction. The compliance to specification must be assured by competent

officer. Selection of good and experience contractor and consultant also the main factor that

contributing to the quality product. The sense of responsibility toward producing good quality of

road by all the project team will ensure production of the top class road. It is not an easy task

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because sometime outside influences such as political influence will affect the output quality of

new constructed as well as in maintenance of existing road.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ON ROAD

Introduction

Roads perform an important connecting function for the community. While roads are important

transportation and communication links, there are some concerns about their sustainability

aspects. In particular, while roads have both economic and social benefits, there is concern about

their impact on the natural environment. The main environmental issues with roads tend to

revolve around greenhouse gas emissions from the traffic the carry. They also have potential

environmental and social effect, such as their ability to impact on natural landscape and on those

who live near them.

However, it is possible to construct and manage roads in an environmentally and socially

responsible manner. Another aspect of road sustainability is that roads, as a significant

component of the transportation fabric of society, should be available for as much time as

possible. In particular, major routes should wherever possible. If they are not, essential goods

may not be able to be transported and there is significant impact on the economy. Such an

example, if flood disaster happen, some major transportation routes were unable to be used both

during and for some time after being flooded, with consequent social and economic effect.

Given the tension between the environmental impacts of roads and their importance in modern

society, road authorities and governments have provided guidance on the planning, development

and operation of roads in sustainable manner.

The Relationship between the Road and Its Environment

To better understand the issues in sustainable roads, it is firstly important to understand the

concept of sustainability, and then to understand how roads are interact with their environments

and communities.

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The concept of sustainability used is based on the well-known definition of sustainable

development used by Brundtly (1987), which is “meeting the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Such sustainability, as

commonly understood, has three components, all of which require to be kept in balance –

economic sustainability, social sustainability and environmental sustainability. Thus, while from

an economic viewpoint roads are required to be built and managed to a budget and provide

economic benefit, it is also necessary to consider their impact on society and the physical

environment.

Factors in The Construction of Sustainability Roads

The construction and management of a sustainable road therefore requires consideration of a

number of factors related to both legislative requirements and good sustainable management

practices. Some of the factors in this process, as related to construction and management of the

road, are described below.

Road Material Selection and Use

It is important to minimize the embodied energy in road construction and maintenance

materials. For example, consideration should be given to the selection, subject to their

suitability, of locally occurring materials for aggregates, in order to reduce embodied

energy of the transportation effort of importing material onto the construction site.

Minimizing embodied energy is enhanced by the use of recycled materials and the

recycling of pavement and surface materials during road rehabilitation or replacement.

The use of recycled aggregates is quite common and recycled glass has also been used for

road or pathway pavement. As with all materials, caution is required in using recycled

materials. However, provided the materials for recycling are selected with care and

knowledge about their advantages and disadvantages, judicious reuse of selected

materials can lead to substantial embodied energy savings and decrease waste.

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Planning and Design

This part defines the parameters of the road development, and also specifies the

construction parameter. Sustainable planning and design may lead to reduce energy use,

sustainable management of resources and waste management. Design also impacts on

items like material selection and pavement design.

An important consideration from the social aspect of sustainability is safety in

design. Such an example, a designer has an obligation to minimize risks in the design of a

structure so that the design does not adversely affect the workplace health and safety of

person either during or post construction. This requirement has implications for the whole

road life cycle.

Finally, one important consideration in both design and construction is ensuring

quality of materials and construction processes. Control of variability (such as in the

properties of materials) will contribute to improved and more predictable outcomes for

the road over its life cycle.

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PARKING

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Parking system is one of the branches of engineering and it is one of the duties of the

Traffic Engineer. Parking is important to be aware of the study if they are adequate for current

needs or otherwise. Parking can be defined as a placement or storage area for vehicles that do not

move and turned off the engine in an area. It is a convenience to drivers parking or storing

vehicles to run their own affairs. Parking density can be measured in the vehicle per region area

or vehicles per length of road.

Parking facilities is the key in providing a planning and control of traffic and is a

cornerstone in providing perfect transport policy in the area.

Development and rapid progress in the area will result in the traffic systems to increase

and indirectly will result in demand for parking requirement also increase.

In a study of parking system, we need to know the actual problem, the existing facilities

suitable or not, the impact on traffic and the impact on the environment must be considered in the

evaluation of car placement problem. Besides that, to studies on the movement of vehicles and

stopping vehicles study is also very important.

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2.0 THE IMPORTANCE OF PARKING SYSTEM

Parking systems should be provided for the public to park their cars easily and safely.

Parking facilities provided must have security control so that drivers do not have to worry about

their car left in the parking lot.

There is no doubt about the importance of parking in line with the increase in car use at

present. The authorities need to provide every parking area or building that caught the attention

of people or groups of people regardless of whether they are located in urban or rural areas. For

example, areas such as colleges and universities, hospitals, stadiums, shopping malls, offices and

others.

Lack of parking will lead to congestion and provide good scenery as well as other

pollutants such as noise and air. This also can lead to economic wastage because they have to

spend more in terms of fuel consumption.

Provisioning of adequate parking can meet the demand coming from the drivers

especially during peak times. This will help to avoid traffic congestion on the roads. Parking that

was not able to meet the needs and demands of the driver will cause the movement of cars on the

road will become increasingly slow and crowded due to the increasing number of cars. This will

resulted in the least saturated flow of the road. So, in order to avoid the traffic congestion on the

roads, the provision of adequate parking is required.

3.0 STUDIES METHODS OF PARKING SPACES

Studies method was carried out on the parking spaces are intended to ensure the

effectiveness of the parking space and also to get the number of required parking spaces.

Provision of car parking spaces depend on the economic and social factors in which the studies

to be carried out. Most of the parking spaces demand in large and medium cities required high

demand and usually the management cannot meet the demand. Among the problems that hinder

the smooth planning of parking spaces in effective are:

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a) Increase the number of people in the future for the area.

b) Levels of car ownership in the design.

c) The number and rate of travel individually.

d) Daily trip rate prevailing during normal daily travel time and peak travel times.

e) Number of load road leading to the area of studies.

f) The relationship between the amount of manual focus peak period parking space with

parking space overall.

g) Parking period for different categories of parking space users.

h) The time considered for planning purposes.

i) Increase the floor area of the study area is currently under construction.

j) Change attraction of the area concerned after development.

Details of the above have to be taken seriously to get a more realistic assessment and

more accurate decisions. With the right decision needs of parking space demand in the future can

be minimized. Total parking spaces required is directly proportional to the increase in population

and the development of the study area.

4.0 PARKING PLACING

Placement of parking is also an important thing in planning development in the area.

Traffic study process and the use of land and parking study can provide guidance for us to

provide the required parking for either short term or long term.

Car parking provision were based on the car at the time of peak volume and the number

of cars on the road overall. Provision of adequate parking will avoid the occurrence of

congestion in the parking lot and also encourage the car driver to park their cars in places that

prohibited for them.

Traffic congestion in Bangi is increasing rapidly as development of the city. Therefore, the

necessary control measures were made to ensure the car park is sufficient to cover the high

traffic volume.

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Therefore, placement of parking must be made by looking at the things that affect

concentration to an area of the vehicle to ensure they are working and effectively functioning to

the public, hence, it will be able to avoid traffic congestion and environmental pollution.

5.0 TYPES OF PARKING

There are many types of car parks that can be obtained in the traffic system. Type of parking can

be classified into two, namely: -

1. Parking on the street area.

2. Parking on the off street area.

5.1 Parking on the Street

Provision of car parking on the street can be built either on one side or both sides of the road to

suit the road. Car parking provision of this kind is usually performed in the street which contains

few vehicles and the demand is low.

This type of parking can be controlled by limiting the duration of car placement. It can be

done in several ways as follows: -

a. By using parking meters.

b. Setting a specific time for parking in an area that is critical

c. Setting up the area parking lot.

5.1.1 Metered Parking

There are many types of car parking like this available in a city which had higher percent of

traffic. This method was introduced by the Well in 1969. An urban area can be designed as

all the forbidden zone of parking meters, except in the marked car lots.

In this method there are some good among them are: -

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a. Placement of the car can be easily adjusted.

b. Car placement period will be reduced.

c. Parking areas clearly marked and drivers will continue to monitor that it does not

place elsewhere.

d. Payment imposed promoting private enterprises providing off-road parking to the

saving public funds.

5.1.2 Tape Parking

This type of parking was an over-riding alternative to metered parking. This method scheme

offers free parking driving along an unmarked curb on the designated times. When the driver

enters the zone scheme he will find a car park and display the tape in his car mirror.

The benefit from this method is that there are no installation capital costs but there are

some disadvantages of this method such as:

a) No results were released.

b) Need more traffic officers.

c) Drivers on the tour difficult to get the tape.

5.2 Parking on the Off-Street Area

The Provision of this type of parking was made to reduce the concentration of drivers to parking

on the street only. In this way it can reduce traffic congestion on the road. The placement this

type of parking must be appropriate and strategic to facilitate the people to conduct their

business.

To facilitate the entry and exit of vehicles, the entry and exit lanes should be designed

gently so that it can provide comfort to the car park users. Maintenance and the arrangement are

usually conducted by local authorities or private companies.

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5.2.1 The Surface Parking

This type of parking is the most famous among the types of off-street parking. It uses a

lot of land. So it requires a perfect design, always controlled and cleaned.

5.2.2 Multi-Storey Car park Building

This type was popular in urban areas. This type of parking reduces land use. Normally

this type of parking is available near the offices, hotels and shopping malls in the city

center and is usually conducted by private companies that have a building. Payment will

be charged to drivers who park their vehicles on parking duration.

Multi-storey car park building can be classified into 3 groups:

a) Attendance parking.

b) Car park users

c) A combination car park users and attendance parking

5.2.3 Underground Car Park

Most of this type of parking is usually available at the bottom of the building, offices,

shopping centers, under the road, public park or community center. The cost of this type

of parking construction is expensive and perhaps this type is the most expensive parking

lot. Therefore, in most underground parking part of the initial cost will be offset because

it represents the costs which would have existed even if parking is not built.

Drivers who park in this area usually will be charged and this will reminds them

not to park too long in this parking lot. This is a way to controlling the parking area to

reduce congestion in the affected areas.

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5.2.4 Roof Top Car Park

Rooftop parking provides parking at a reasonable cost. Major trip was to ram the

increased expense in proportion to the height of the building. In some cases it is possible

to connect two or more to allow the ram in and out for the entire area.

5.2.5 Ram Parking System

This type of parking is one of the types of off-street parking. It is usually built in

shopping centers, supermarkets and hotel buildings.

6.0 PARKING STANDARDS

Provision of car parking in development planning carried out by the authorities must be based on

specific standards according to the importance of certain areas. This is means that they must

provide parking to drivers that can operate without control over them.

In residential areas and rural areas, the policy should be implemented so that drivers have

access to a convenient parking. This means that proper planning should be made to streamline

the parking area and the total number of cars at peak times. Thus the control of parking should be

made by the authority that manages the affected areas.

Parking should be used by the public if there is a demand for it. The policy is to allow

people to park their cars, especially in certain areas.

6.1 The purpose of Parking Standards

The importance of providing standards for the parking is intended: -

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a. To ensure that the parking areas are sufficient to cater for the placement of cars

available at one area.

b. To avoid road congestion due to excessive number of cars in parking lots provide a

more orderly. This will sustain the environment.

Parking standards are made is different and distinct from one place to another

place. This is due to the different demands of parking between the areas involved.

Others, these standards are based on the total number of cars in the area. The area

that has the status of progressing and different interests will lead to the number of cars in

the areas to be different. This difference is seen in the parking demand requirements for

operation and non-operating.

6.2 Parking Specification

Specification for car parking is necessary to determine the number of parking spaces to

an area. It should be made to ensure that parking is available to operate at optimum levels

for each car. The space needed for parking can be seen in the table below.

Types of Building Parking

Residential Area Occupant: 1

Visitor: 1

Shop Area Occupant: 1

Visitor: 1 for every 25m2 shop area

Office Area Occupant: 1 for every officer and 4 for

employees

Visitor: 10% of the parking spaces for

employees

Bank Area Occupant: 1 for each of the officers and 4 other

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employees

Industrial Area Occupant: 1 for every 25 m2 of industrial areas

Visitor: 10% of parking for employees

Public Library Occupant: 1 for every 3 employees on duty

Visitor: 3 for each 500 members and 1 addition

for every 10 seats

Hospital Occupant: 1 for every doctor and 1 unit every

other employee

Patient & Visitor: 1 for each 3 beds

School Occupant: 1 for every 2 employee

Visitor: 4 for every 1000 students

Higher Educational Institute Occupant: 1 for every 2 employees in duty

Visitor: 5 for every 1000 students

Museum and Art Gallery Centre Occupant: 1 for every 2 employees in duty

Visitor: 1 for every 30m2 area

Cinema Occupant: 1 for every 3 employees in duty

Visitor: 1 for every 5 seats

As we can see from the table above for school occupancy for one parking lot for

every two employees or teachers and four parking lot for every one thousand students. In

this project we will overall provided 39 parking lots for every teachers, staffs and visitors.

7.0 PAVEMENT DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR PARKING LOT

7.1 Drainage Provisions

Drainage problems are frequently a major cause of parking area pavement failures. This is

especially the case with irrigation sprinkler systems located in parking lot islands and medians. It

is critical to keep water away from the subgrade soil. If the subgrade becomes saturated, it will

lose strength and stability, making the overlying pavement structure susceptible to breakup under

imposed loads

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Drainage provisions should be carefully designed and should be installed early in the

construction process. As a general guideline, parking area surfaces should have minimum slope

guidelines. The parking lot should be designed to provide for positive drainage.

Pavement cross slopes of less than 2 percent hard to construct without the formation of

“bird bath”, slight depressions that pond water. They should also be constructed so water does

not accumulate at the pavement edge. Runoff should be collected in curb and gutter pans and

channeled off of the parking lot. Curb and gutter cross sections should be built so that water

flows within the designed flow line and not along the interface between the asphalt pavement

and curb face. Areas of high natural permeability may require an under drain system to carry

water away from the pavement substructure. Any soft or spongy area encountered during

construction should be immediately evaluated for under drain installation or for removal and

replacement with suitable materials.

7.2 Subgrade Preparations

All underground utilities should be protected or relocated before grading. All topsoil should be

removed. Poor quality soil may be improved by adding granular materials, soil stabilization, or

other mixtures to stabilized the existing soils. Laboratory tests are recommended to evaluate the

load supporting characteristics of the subgrade soil and determination, the applicability for

stabilization or modification due to the presence of sulfate should be considered.

The area to be paved should have all rock, debris, and vegetation removed. The area

should be treated with a soil sterilant to inhibit future vegetative growth. Grading and

compaction of the area should be completed so as to eliminate yielding or pumping of the soil.

Proof rolling is recommended prior to application of the base layer.

The subgrade should be compacted to a uniform density of 95 percent of the maximum

density. This should be determined in accordance with Standard or Modifier Proctor density as

appropriate to the soil type. When finished, the graded subgrade should not deviate from the

required grade and cross section by more than one half inch in ten feet.

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7.3 Untreated Aggregate Base Construction

The untreated aggregate base course section based on the pavement design should consist of one

or more layers placed directly on the prepared subgrade, with or without a separation fabric,

depending on soil type. It should be spread and compacted with moisture control to the uniform

thickness, density and finished grade as required on the plans.

It should be noted that an untreated aggregate base might be sensitive to water in the

subgrade. Pavement failures associated with water in the subgrade are accelerated if an untreated

base allows water to enter the pavement structure. Grading should be done to promote natural

drainage, otherwise, other types of under drain systems should be included in the design.

7.4 Prime Coat

An application of low viscosity liquid asphalt may be required over untreated aggregate base

before placing the HMA surface course. A prime coat and its benefits differ with each

application, and its use often can be eliminated. Discuss requirements with the paving contractor.

If a prime coat is used, AEP (Asphalt Emulsified Prime) should be specified as it is designed to

penetrate the base material. The use of a tack coat is not recommended for use as a prime coat.

7.5 Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)/Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) Base Construction

The asphalt base course material should be placed directly on the prepared subgrade in one or

more lifts. It should be spread and compacted to the thickness indicated on the plans.

Compaction of this asphalt base is one of the most important construction operations

contributing to the proper performance of the completed pavement. This is why it is so important

to have a properly prepared and unyielding subgrade against which to compact. The HMA base

material should meet the specifications for the mix type specified.

Page 80: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

7.6 Tack Coat

Before placing successive pavement layers, the previous course should be cleaned and a tack

coat of diluted emulsified asphalt should be applied. The tack coat may be eliminated if the

previous coat is freshly placed and thoroughly clean.

7.7 Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)/Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) Surface Course

Material for the surface course should be an HMA or WMA mix placed in one or more lifts to

the finished lines and grade as shown on the plans. The plant mix material should conform to

specifications for Hot or Warm Mix Asphalt. Warm Mix Asphalt is a relatively new technology

whereby production and construction temperatures of asphalt concrete mixtures are significantly

reduced (50-100oF) via foaming of the asphalt binder or chemical additive. In either case, fumes

and emissions are significantly reduced. From a design perspective, current recommendations are

to conduct the asphalt mixture design in accordance with established procedures for HMA and

then verify the WMA mixture properties during production.

For most application, the finished asphalt surface should not vary from established grade

by more than one-quarter inch in ten feet when measured n any direction. This requirement may

not be attainable when matching curb, gutter and V-pans. Any irregularities in the surface of the

pavement course should be corrected directly behind the paver. As soon as the material can be

compacted without displacement, rolling and compaction should start and should continue until

the surface is thoroughly compacted and roller marks disappear.

8.0 Structural Design of Interlocking Concrete Pavement for Roads and Parking Lots

8.1 History

The concept of interlocking concrete pavement dates back to the roads of the Roman Empire.

They were constructed with tightly fitted paving units set on a compacted aggregate base. The

modern version, concrete pavers, is manufactured with close tolerances to help ensure interlock.

Concrete pavers were developed in the Netherlands in the late 1940’s as a replacement for clay

Page 81: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

brick streets. A strong, millennia-old tradition of segmental paving in Europe enabled

interlocking concrete pavement to spread quickly. It is now established as a conventional means

of paving there, with some two billion ft2 (200 million m2) installed annually. Concrete pavers

came to North America in the 1970’s. They have been used successfully in numerous residential,

commercial, municipal, port and airport applications.

8.2 Advantages

The paving system offers the advantages of concrete materials and flexible asphalt pavement. As

high-strength concrete, the units have high resistance to freeze-thaw cycles and deicing salts,

high abrasion and skid resistance, no damage from petroleum products nor from concentrated

point loads or high temperatures. Once installed, there is no waiting time for curing. The

pavement is immediately ready for traffic. Stress cracking and degradation of the surface is

minimized because the numerous joints, or intentional “cracks,” act as the means for load

transfer. Like flexible asphalt pavement, an aggregate base accomodates minor settlement

without surface cracking. An aggregate base facilitates fast construction, as well as access to

underground utilities. Mechanical installation of concrete pavers can further shorten construction

time. Pavement reinstatement is enhanced by reusable paving units, thereby reducing waste

materials.

8.3 The Principle of Interlock

Interlock is critical to the structural performance of interlocking concrete pavement. When

considering design and construction, three types of interlock must be achieved: vertical,

rotational, and horizontal interlock. These are illustrated in Figure 2. Vertical interlock is

achieved by the shear transfer of loads to surrounding units through sand in the joints. Rotational

interlock is maintained by the pavers being of sufficient thickness, placed closely together, and

restrained by a curb from lateral forces of vehicle tires.

Rotational interlock can be further enhanced if there is a slight crown to the pavement

cross section. Besides facilitating drainage, the crown enables the units to tighten slightly

Page 82: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

through loads and minor settlement across the entire pavement, thereby increasing structural

capacity. Horizontal interlock is primarily achieved through the use of laying patterns that

disperse forces from braking, turning, and accelerating vehicles. The most effective laying

patterns for maintaining interlock are herringbone patterns. Testing has shown that these patterns

offer greater structural capacity and resistance to lateral movement than other laying patterns (1,

2, 3). Therefore, herringbone patterns are recommended in areas subject to vehicular traffic. See

Figure 3. Stable edge restraints such as curbs are essential. They maintain horizontal interlock

while the units are subject to repeated lateral loads from vehicle tires. ICPI Tech Spec 3, Edge

Restraints for Interlocking Concrete Pavements offers guidance on the selection and detailing of

edge restraints for a range of applications.

8.4 Typical Pavement Design and Construction

Figure 4 illustrates typical schematic cross sections for interlocking concrete pavement. Both the

base and subbase are compacted aggregate. Many pavements for city and residential uses do not

require an aggregate subbase except for very heavy use, or over a weak soil subgrade. In these

situations it may be more economical to use asphalt or cement stabilized base layers. They are

often placed over a subbase layer of unbound compacted aggregate.

Page 83: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Construction is covered in ICPI Tech Spec 2, Construction of Interlocking Concrete

Pavement. The steps for preparing the soil subgrade and base materials are similar to those

required for flexible asphalt pavements. After the base surface is built to specified elevations and

surface tolerances, bedding sand is screeded in an even layer, typically 1–11/2 in. (25–40 mm)

thick. The units are placed, manually or mechanically, on the smooth bedding sand, constrained

by stationary edge restraints.

The pavers are vibrated with a high frequency plate vibrator. This action forces sand into

the bottom of the joints of the pavers and begins compaction of the bedding sand. Sand is then

spread and swept into the joints, and the pavers are compacted again until the joints are filled.

Complete compaction of the sand and slight settlement of the pavers tightens them. During

compaction, the pavement is transformed from a loose collection of pavers to an interlocking

system capable of spreading vertical loads horizontally. This occurs through shear forces in the

joints.

8.5 Structural Design Procedure

The load distribution and failure modes of flexible asphalt and interlocking concrete pavement

are very similar: permanent deformation from repetitive loads. Since failure modes are similar, a

simplified procedure of the method is adapted from Reference 4 and the American Association

of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993 Guide for Design of Pavement

Structures (5). The following structural design procedure is for roads and parking lots. Design

for heavy duty pavements such as port and airport pavements is covered in ICPI manuals

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entitled, Port and Industrial Pavement Design for Concrete Pavers, and Airfield Pavement

Design with Concrete Pavers.

8.6 Design Considerations

The evaluation of four factors and their interactive effects will determine the final pavement

thickness and material. These include environment, traffic, subgrade soil strength, and pavement

materials. The design engineer selects values representing attributes of these factors. The values

can be very approximate correlations and qualitative assumptions. Each factor, however, can be

measured accurately with detailed engineering studies and extensive laboratory testing. As more

detailed information is obtained about each factor, the reliability of the design will increase.

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The effort and cost in obtaining information about each should be consistent with the

importance of the pavement. A major thoroughfare should receive more analysis of the soil

subgrade and traffic mix than a residential street. Furthermore, the degree of analysis and

engineering should increase as the subgrade strength decreases and as the anticipated traffic level

increases. In other words, pavements for high volume traffic over weak soils should have the

highest degree of analysis of each factor as is practical.

Environment—Moisture and temperature significantly affect pavement. As moisture in

the soil or base increases, the load bearing capacity of the soil or the strength of the base

decreases. Moisture causes differential heaving and swelling of certain soils, as well.

Temperature can affect the load bearing capacity of pavements, particularly asphalt

stabilized layers. The combined effect of freezing temperatures and moisture can lead to the two

detrimental effects. First, expansion of the water during freezing can cause the pavement to

heave. Second, the strength of the pavement materials can be reduced by thawing.

These detrimental effects can be reduced or eliminated one of three ways. Moisture can

be kept from entering the pavement base and soil. Moisture can be removed before it has a

chance to weaken the pavement. Pavement materials can be used to resist moisture and

movement from swelling or frost. Limited construction budgets often do not allow complete

protection against the effects of moisture and freeze thaw. Consequently, their effects should be

mitigated to the highest extent allowed by the available budget and materials.

In this design procedure, the effects of moisture and frost are part of characterizing of the

strength of subgrade soil and pavement materials. Subjective descriptions of drainage quality and

moisture conditions influence design strength values for subgrade soils and unbound granular

materials. In addition, if freeze-thaw exists, then soil subgrade strength is reduced according to

the degree of its frost susceptibility.

Traffic—When pavement is trafficked, it receives wear or damage. The amount of

damage depends on the weight of the vehicles and the number of expected passes over a given

period of time. The period of time, or design life, is usually 20 years. Predicted traffic over the

life of the pavement is an estimate of various vehicle loads, axle and wheel configurations, and

the number of loads. The actual amount of traffic loads can often exceed the predicted loads.

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Therefore, engineering judgement is required in estimating expected sources of traffic and loads

well into the future.

Damage to pavement results from a multitude of axle loads from cars, vans, light trucks,

buses and tractor-trailers. In order to more easily predict the damage, all of the various axle loads

are expressed as damage from an equivalent standard axle load. In other words, the combined

damaging effects of various axle loads are equated to the damaging effect of 18-kip (80 kN)

equivalent single axle load (EALs) repetitions. Damage factors for other axle loads are shown in

Table 1. For example, the table shows that a single axle load of 38-kip (169 kN) would cause the

same pavement damage as approximately 30 passes of an 18-kip (80 kN) single axle.

For pavements carrying many different kinds of vehicles, greater study is needed to

obtain the expected distribution of axle loads within the design period. If no detailed traffic

information is available, Table 2 can be used for general guidance by listing typical EALs as a

function of road class. In some situations, the designer cannot know the expected traffic in five,

ten or fifteen years into the future. Therefore, the reliability (degree of conservatism) of the

engineer’s predictions can be modified as follows:

Adjusted EALs = FR x EALs (estimated or from Table 2) where FR is the reliability

factor. Recommended reliability factors by road class are also given in Table 2, along with the

corresponding adjusted EALs for use in the design. In some residential development projects,

interlocking concrete pavement streets are constructed first and then housing is built. Axle loads

from construction-related truck traffic should be factored into the base thickness design. The

loads can be substantial compared to the lighter loads from automobiles after construction is

complete.

Soil Subgrade Support—The strength of the soil subgrade has the greatest effect in

determining the total thickness of the interlocking concrete pavement. When feasible, resilient

modulus or soaked California Bearing Ratio (CBR) laboratory tests should be conducted on the

typical subgrade soil to evaluate its strength. These tests should be conducted at the most

probable field conditions of density and moisture that will be anticipated during the design life of

the pavement. CBR tests are described in ASTM D 1883 (6) or AASHTO T 193 (7).

Page 87: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

In the absence of laboratory tests, typical resilient modulus (Mr) values have been

assigned to each soil type defined in the United Soil Classification System (USCS), per ASTM D

2487 (6), or AASHTO soil classification systems (see Tables 3 and 4). Three modulus values are

provided for each USCS or AASHTO soil type, depending on the anticipated environmental and

drainage conditions at the site. Guidelines for selecting the appropriate Mr value are summarized

in Table 5. Each soil type in Tables 3 and 4 has also been assigned a reduced Mr value (far right

column) for use only when frost action is a design consideration.

Compaction of the subgrade soil during construction should be at least 98% of AASHTO

T-99 or ASTM D 698 for cohesive (clay) soils and at least 98% of AASHTO T-180 or ASTM D

1557 for cohesionless (sandy and gravelly) soils. The higher compaction standards described in

T-180 or D 1557 are preferred. The effective depth of compaction for all cases should be at least

the top 12 inches (300 mm). Soils having an Mr of 4,500 psi (31 MPa) or less (CBR 3% or less)

should be evaluated for either replacement with a material with higher bearing strength,

installation of an aggregate subbase capping layer, improvement by stabilization, or use of

geotextiles.

Pavement Materials—The type, strength and thickness of all available paving materials

should be established. Crushed aggregate bases, or stabilized bases used in highway construction

are generally suitable for interlocking concrete pavement. Most states, provinces and

municipalities have material and construction standards for these bases. If none are available,

then the standards found in ASTM D 2940 (6) may be used. Minimum recommended strength

requirements for unbound aggregate bases should be CBR = 80% and CBR = 30% for subbases.

For unbound aggregate base material, the Plasticity Index should be no greater than 6; the

Liquid Limit limited to 25; and compaction should be at least 98% of AASHTO T-180 density.

For unbound granular subbase material, the material should have a Plasticity Index less than 10,

a Liquid Limit less than 25, and compaction requirements should be at least 98% of AASHTO T-

180 density. In-place density should be checked in the field as this is critical to the performance

of the pavement. If an asphalt treated base is used, the material should conform to dense graded,

well compacted, asphalt concrete specifications, i.e., Marshall stability of at least 1800 pounds

(8000 N). Cement treated base material should have a 7 day unconfined compressive strength of

at least 650 psi (4.5 MPa).

Page 88: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Recommended minimum base thicknesses are 4 in. (100 mm) for all unbound aggregate

layers, 3 in. (75 mm) for asphalt-treated bases, and 4 in. (100 mm) for cement-treated bases. A

minimum thickness of aggregate base (CBR=80) should be 4 in. (100 mm) for traffic levels

below 500,000 EALs and 6 in. (150 mm) for EALs over 500,000.

Bedding sand should be consistent throughout the pavement and not exceed 1.5 in. (40

mm) after compaction. A thicker sand layer will not provide stability. Very thin sand layers (less

than 3 /4 in. [20 mm] after compaction) may not produce the locking up action obtained by sand

migration upward into the joints during the initial compaction in construction. The bedding layer

should conform to the gradation in ASTM C 33 (6), as shown in Table 6 below. Do not use

screenings or stone dust. The sand should be as hard as practically available.

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Page 90: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Joint sand provides vertical interlock and shear transfer of loads. It can be slightly finer

than the bedding sand. Gradation for this material can have a maximum 100% passing the No. 16

sieve (1.18 mm) and no more than 10% passing the No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm). Bedding sand

may be used for joint sand. Additional effort in filling the joints during compaction may be

required due to its coarser gradation. See ICPI Tech Spec 9, Guide Specification for the

Construction of Interlocking Concrete Pavement for additional information on gradation of

bedding and joint sand, as well as ICPI Zaphers guide specifications.

Concrete pavers should conform to the ASTM C 936 (6) in the U.S. or CSA A231.2 (8)

in Canada. A minimum paver thickness of 3.15 inches (80 mm) is recommended for all

pavements subject to vehicular traffic, excluding residential driveways. As previously

mentioned, the units should be placed in a herringbone pattern. No less than one-third of a cut

paver should be used along the edges.

Research in the United States and overseas has shown that the combined paver and sand

layers stiffen as they are exposed to greater numbers of traffic loads. The progressive stiffening,

or “lock up,” generally occurs early in the life of the pavement, before 10,000 EALs. Once this

number of loads has been applied, Mr = 450,000 psi (3100 MPa) for the 3.125 in. (80 mm) thick

paver and 1 in. (25 mm) of bedding sand. Pavement stiffening and stabilizing can be accelerated

by static proof-rolling with an 8–10 ton (8–10 T) rubber tired roller.

Page 91: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

The above modulus is similar to that of an equivalent thickness of asphalt. The 3.125 in.

(80 mm) thick pavers and 1 in. (25 mm) thick bedding sand have an AASHTO layer coefficient

at least equal to the same thickness of asphalt, i.e., 0.44 per inch (25 mm). Unlike asphalt, the

modulus of concrete pavers will not substantially decrease as temperature increases, nor will they

become brittle in cold climates. They can withstand loads without distress and deterioration in

temperature extremes.

Page 92: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd
Page 93: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

COURSE OUTCOME 4

Able to judge and manually carry out design of infrastructure elements (earthworks, road,

drainage, water reticulation, sewerage) by applying relevant codes.

Page 94: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Prepared by: Mohd Gazali Bin Alimuddin

Checked by : Prof Madya Dr. Othman Jaafar

PROJECT:Construction of a school

Part of Structure: Road DesignDate: 18 May 2013

Step Explanation/Calculations References

Design Speed

Road

Classification

Since the development area is within UKM, the road

is considered to be urban.

Therefore, it is classified as Urban.

cl. 2.1.

ATJ 8/86

Finding Average

Daily Traffic

(ADT)

The value of ADT is estimated roughly based on the

number of parking spaces available within the whole

site. According to the architectural drawings, there

are less than 100 parking spaces available within all

the buildings. Therefore, conservatively, the ADT is

considered as 150.

cl. 2.5

ATJ 8/86

Design Standard Once the value for ADT is obtained, the design

standard for the road can be deduced.

Since the ADT is equal to 150, and the region is

rural, the design standard is U2.

cl. 2.5,

Table 2-3

ATJ 8/86

Topography The topography of the project site will affect the

parameters considered in the road design.

For this project, the maximum slope is 3.75%,

resulting into the terrain to be Rolling.

cl. 3.1

ATJ 8/86

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Prepared by: Mohd Gazali Bin Alimuddin

Checked by : Prof Madya Dr. Othman Jaafar

PROJECT:Construction of a school

Part of Structure: Road DesignDate: 18 May 2013

Step Explanation/Calculations References

Design Speed The value for design speed is an important parameter

in further calculations for the road design. It depends

on the type of terrain and the road classification. The

design speed for the road is chosen as 50 km/hr.

Table 3-

2A,

ATJ 8/86.

Capacity Design

ADT Estimated (as above mentioned) to 150. cl. 3.3.1,

ATJ 5/85.

Percentage of

commercial

vehicles, Pc

Since the development area is a residential and

institutional one, there is less probability of having

commercial or heavy vehicles on the roads regularly,

except for buses. Therefore, Pc is assumed to be

10%.

cl. 3.3.2

ATJ 5/85.

Rate of growth, r Assumed to be 5%. cl. 3.3.3

ATJ 5/85.

Initial average

commercial

traffic for one

direction, Vo

Vo = ADT x 365 x 0.5 x Pc/100

= 2 738 pcu

cl. 3.3.4

ATJ 5/85.

Years of

projected traffic

The conservative years of projected traffic is taken as

20 years. However, to be economical, a usual value

of 10 years is considered in design.

cl. 3.2.2

ATJ 5/85.

Page 96: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Prepared by: Mohd Gazali Bin Alimuddin

Checked by : Prof Madya Dr. Othman Jaafar

PROJECT:Construction of a school

Part of Structure: Road DesignDate: 18 May 2013

Step Explanation/Calculations References

Total no. of

commercial

vehicles for one

direction, Vc

V c=V o[ (1+r ) x –1]

r

V c=2738[ (1+0.05 )10 – 1]

0.05

V c=¿ 34 432 pcu

cl. 3.3.5

ATJ 5/85.

Total daily traffic

at end of design

years, Vx

V x=V 1 (1+r )x

where V1 is the average daily traffic per lane

V1 = ADT/2

V1 = 150/2 = 75

V x=75 x (1+0.05 )10

Vx = 122 vehicles per day per lane

cl. 3.3.7

ATJ 5/85.

Equivalence

Factor, e

The equivalence factor depends on the percentage of

heavy vehicles, Pc. Therefore, value of e is 1.2

Table 3.1

ATJ 5/85.

Total equivalent

Standard Axles,

ESA

The value of ESA is the product of e and Vc.

ESA=Vc x e

ESA=34432 x 1.2

ESA=¿ 413 18.4

cl. 3.3.9

ATJ 5/85.

Page 97: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Prepared by: Mohd Gazali Bin Alimuddin

Checked by : Prof Madya Dr. Othman Jaafar

PROJECT:Construction of a school

Part of Structure: Road DesignDate: 18 May 2013

Step Explanation/Calculations References

Max hourly

traffic volume, c

The maximum hourly traffic volume is given by:

c=I x R xT

where I – ideal one-way hourly capacity

R - Roadway Factor

T - Traffic Reduction Factor

I = 2000 (for one lane)

R = 1.00 (road width = 7.3m and shoulder width =

1.5m)

T= 100100+2 Pc

T= 100100+2(0.10)

T=¿ 1.00

Therefore,

c=1000 x 0.70 x1.00

c=1400 vehicles per hour per lane

cl. 3.3.12

ATJ 5/85.

Table 3.2

Table 3.3

Table 3.4

ATJ 5/85.

One-way daily

capacity, C

It is assumed that the maximum hourly traffic

represents 10% of the daily traffic. Thus,

C=10 xc

C=14000 vehicles per day per lane

cl. 3.3.13

ATJ 5/85.

Page 98: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Prepared by: Mohd Gazali Bin Alimuddin

Checked by : Prof Madya Dr. Othman Jaafar

PROJECT:Construction of a school

Part of Structure: Road DesignDate: 18 May 2013

Step Explanation/Calculations References

Level of Service Level of Service (LOS) is the ratio of volume of the

road to the capacity of the road. As obtained from the

above calculations:

V = 124 vehicles per day per lane

C = 1400 vehicles per day per lane

LOS=VC

LOS= 1221400

= 0.09

Since LOS = 0.09c, which lies between 0.00 and

0.59, the Level of Service is A. LOS A refers free

flow with low volumes, densities and high speeds.

Thus, the design is adequate.

Table 3-4

ATJ 8/86

Pavement Design

Pavement LayoutWearing Course - Asphalt

Binder Course - Asphalt

Base Course – Mechanically Stabilised Crushed Aggregates

Sub Base Course - Sand

Page 99: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Prepared by: Mohd Gazali Bin Alimuddin

Checked by : Prof Madya Dr. Othman Jaafar

PROJECT:Construction of a school

Part of Structure: Road DesignDate: 18 May 2013

Step Explanation/Calculations References

Required

parameters

previously

obtained

Class of road: U2

ADT : 150

ESA: 41318.4 = 4.13 x 104

CBR CBR refers to the strength of the subsoil. It is

assumed to be 5%.

cl. 3.5.1

ATJ 5/85.

Equivalent

Thickness, TA and

Corrected

Equivalent

Thickness, TA`

The equivalent thickness is the thickness

theoretically required while the corrected equivalent

thickness is a measure of minimum thickness

required for the road pavement. Their values are

dependent on both ESA and CBR values.

From Thickness Design Nomograph, the values of

TA and of TA` are 11.0cm and 10.0 cm, respectively.

Figure 2

ATJ 5/85.

Thickness of

Pavement, TA

Determining the thickness of pavement is a trial and

error process. The depth of each layer of the

pavement is to be assumed and calculation carried

out in order to get an adequate design.

TA = a1D1 + a2D2 +a3D3 +a4D4

cl. 3.5.2

ATJ 5/85.

Page 100: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Prepared by: Mohd Gazali Bin Alimuddin

Checked by : Prof Madya Dr. Othman Jaafar

PROJECT:Construction of a school

Part of Structure: Road DesignDate: 18 May 2013

Step Explanation/Calculations References

Thickness of

Pavement, TA

Values of a1, a2, a3 and a4 are obtained from the JKR

standard.

a1: 1.00 ; a2: 1.00; a3: 0.32 and a4: 0.23

Note:

1. The values for the above coefficients are

dependent on the materials used for each layer. It is

common in Malaysia to use the following:

Wearing Course: Asphalt

Binder Course: Asphalt

Base Course: Mechanically Stabilised Crushed

Aggregates

Sub Base Course: Sand

2. The depths chosen for each layer in the pavement

should follow the minimum thicknesses in the JKR

standard.

Therefore,

Trial 1: D1: 4cm; D2: 5cm; D3: 5cm and D4: 10cm

TA = (1.00 x 4) + (1.00 x 5) + (0.32 x 5) + (0.23 x

10)

= 12.9 cm

Table 3.5

ATJ 5/85.

Table 3.5

ATJ 5/85.

Table 3.6

ATJ 5/85.

Page 101: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Prepared by: Mohd Gazali Bin Alimuddin

Checked by : Prof Madya Dr. Othman Jaafar

PROJECT:Construction of a school

Part of Structure: Road DesignDate: 18 May 2013

Step Explanation/Calculations References

The value of TA is less than that of T A`, thus, each

layer of pavement has a thickness as chosen as

above.

Thus,

Wearing Course: 4cm

Binder Course: 5 cm

Base Course: 5cm

Sub Base Course: 10 cm

Page 102: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Prepared by: Mohd Gazali Bin Alimuddin

Checked by : Prof Madya Dr. Othman Jaafar

PROJECT:Construction of a school

Part of Structure: Road DesignDate: 18 May 2013

Step Explanation/Calculations References

Design Speed The geometric design depends on the design speed. It

was previously obtained in the traffic design.

Design Speed = 50 km/hr

Road cross-

section

geometries

Lane width = 7.30m

Marginal Strip width = 0.00m

Shoulder Width = 1.50m

Table 5-3

Table 5-3

Table 5-4A

Alignment

Parameters

Maximum Superelevation = 0.10

Horizontal Alignment:

Minimum radius = 85m

Stopping Sight Distance = 65m

Passing Sight Distance = 350m

Vertical Alignment:

Maximum Desirable Grade = 7%

Maximum Grade = 10%

Crest Vertical Curve = 10

Sag Vertical Curve = 12

Pg 6

General

Summary-

Geometric

Design-

Criteria for

Roads in

Rural

Areas.

Page 103: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

COURSE OUTCOME 5

Able to design infrastructure elements and generate drawings using relevant computer

software (Excel spread sheet, AutoCad and other design software).

*(Refer to Drawing Plan)

Page 104: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

COURSE OUTCOME 7

“Able to verbally present infra and sub-structures design project in presentation session.”

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Page 112: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

COURSE OUTCOME 11

“Able to execute life-long learning activities in project activities.”

Page 113: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd
Page 114: Latar Belakang Projek 2nd

Life Long Learning Through This Project

In this project I already learnt many things that were involved in construction process

mostly in road construction. I had learnt what should be consider before we starting the roadwork

such as do the site assessment first, see what types of soils on the proposed area and see the type

of vegetation there so we can easily know what to do next. Such an example i can say, when we

already know the type of soil there in proposed site, whether it is too swampy or dry land, we can

know what method and what lab test we should do to accomplished the work. Every single work

to be accomplished has its own method to solve the problem.

Instead of doing some site assessment, i also learnt to investigate the surrounding of the

proposed site. In doing this, i do go sightseeing to observe what trend in the nearest area such as

the traffic flow, available facilities, and the residents. It is important because it might give an

impact to the time of completion and cost of the project in terms of transporting material, fuel,

and traffic. If the engineer or the construction player did not concern of this, the project will be

failed in any time, may not last long and will cost them more.

Moreover, in this project also had teaches me how to cooperate with different person with

different role. Every task related to each other. As for me, i do the roadwork and some parking

and i should cooperate with my members who done the sewerage, drainage and the earthwork

task. Without them, my work will stuck and in the other word my work will be delay. I need to

know the proposed platform level from earthwork process to make it as my current level to do

my own proposed platform level. I also need to cooperate with the the one who handle the

sewerage and drainage task. This is important so i can propose the geometric pavement design,

the layout of roadwork and the place I can proposed the parking. If i skip this thing, it will make

it hard for them to placing the sewerage pipe and drainage pipe.

Other than that, I already learnt many type of innovation in roadwork available in the

current industries and mostly a more sustainable product in terms of material used and also

sustainable plan practices in road construction. Such an example sustainable plan from

‘Greenroads’. This system outlines minimum requirements to qualify as a green roadway,

including a noise mitigation plan, storm-water management plan and waste management plan.

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In this project also we already learn how to handle some software such as Autocad,

Esteem, Geostudio and others in analysis, sketching, and drawing. But the main problem is we

lacked of exposure from the professionals. We need to learn it by ourself and that will take too

much time to complete one analysis. I hope in the future, there will be more exposure to the

student on how to handle certain software to be use.

One more thing, the problem that I faced when doing the drawing plan. I do not know

what specification i should follow to get a better drawing plan just like the real drawing plan that

were used for engineer in planning a project. I hope there will be some example of it.

Lastly i hope, the learning scheme of this subject should be prepared wisely so that the

student could learn something without worrying about the date to submit this projecy and just

copying this or that from book and internet.

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COURSE OUTCOME 12

“Able to develop or propose or incorporate or plan new structures from existing knowledge

on the impact of professional Civil and Structural Engineering solutions in societal and

environmental contexts and the need for sustainable development in the design project.”

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The Role of the Civil Engineer in Sustainable Development

sustainability as a set of economic, environmental and social conditions in which all of society

has the capacity and opportunity to maintain and improve its quality of life indefinitely, without

degrading the quantity, quality or the availability of natural resources and ecosystems. Moreover,

sustainable development is the process of converting natural resources into products and services

that are more profitable, productive, and useful, while maintaining or enhancing the quantity,

quality, availability and productivity of the remaining natural resource base and the ecological

systems on which they depend.

As we all know, Civil Engineering is one of the, if not the most important keystones of

civilization, or development as we recognize it today. Historically too, the ruins or remains of

great structures and infrastructure like the Dagobas and irrigation systems of Anuradhapura,

Pyramids of Egypt, Stonehenge of England, buildings and fortresses of the ancient Roman,

Greek and Maya cultures are the evidence that we have to learn about the height and the

sophistication of civilization of those communities.

Civil Engineering involves providing irrigation for cultivation, construction of housing

and offices, schools, hospitals, hotels and all sorts of buildings to provide living, learning and

working spaces, roads and railways, both above and below ground, bridges to connect

inaccessible points, harbours and airports for air travel and shipping and infrastructure like water

supply and wastewater collection and disposal systems, storm drainage and flood protection

schemes, coast protection structures and so on. Not only that, Civil Engineers are called upon to

put up telecommunication towers for the telecom engineers to fix their equipment, pylons for the

electrical engineers to support the power lines, and to design and install optical fibre cabling for

the computer engineers.

We plan, design and construct all these facilities, and we have always been trained to do

that with great attention to safety, comfort, serviceability and economy. A civil engineer would

never design a building without checking the safety of the critical components against structural

failure due dead loads, live loads, wind loads etc., according to the Codes of Practice, a dam

without checking for overtopping, toppling or sliding, a drainage system without providing

capacity for a predetermined rainfall intensity and return period, a highway or railway without

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providing the necessary curvatures to ensure safety and comfort and so on. Nor would a Civil

Engineer plan or design a structure or facility that would seem insecure or is insufficient for the

purpose for which it is meant. He or she would select all materials very carefully to ensure its

strength, serviceability and economy. We have heard of the famous saying ’an engineer is a

person who can do for one ringgit, what any fool can do for two’, and often we find engineers

who economize even at the expense of aesthetics! Our thinking has been trained in this fashion,

and it only feels right when we do our work according to these concepts.

While doing all this to provide a better quality of life for the population, we make use of,

and sometimes render unusable, large amounts of natural resources, sometime even without

realizing it. When we construct a building, for example, we use sand, minerals that go into

cement, metal (stones), iron and aluminium, timber etc. as construction materials, fresh water,

and fuel for transport of materials and people and for operation of equipment, which are all

natural resources. But sometimes we tend to forget that we are making use of a very limited

resource, land, to put up the building. It is the same with roads, railways, airports, carparks or

any other land based construction. We deprive the land of being used for other productive uses,

and reduce the vegetation cover, which cleans up the air, by absorbing the green house gases that

cause global warming. Most of us do not think twice about removing the vegetation and topsoil

from a construction site, or cutting down a tree that is obstructing a predetermined road or

railway alignment or a power line. When we want to provide irrigation for agriculture, we have

no qualms about putting up a dam across a stream and making a reservoir, drowning all plants

and small animals and insects, particularly if no people are adversely affected. No wonder we

give the impression to the public, particularly the so called environmentalists that we do not care

for the environment as much as we should.

We used to assume that such destruction of the environment is the price people have to

pay to get what they want – a trade-off situation that is inevitable.

However, now there is another dimension or a concept that has become very important as

the world has realized the diminishing nature of the natural resources that are available to us.

The earth can be compared to a spaceship travelling at very high speed through the

Universe, with all the materials needed for our survival are packed into it. The only external

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resource is the sun’s energy, which is available to us as a perpetual resource. It is not like

travelling in a train or bus, where we could stop at a station or bus stop and have a cup of tea and

a bun. The earth has a life support system, which is governed by the natural recycling of matter

and the one way flow of energy from the sun which can be converted to other forms, but loses a

part of it as low quality heat every time it is converted. We learn about these as the law of

conservation of mass and the two laws of Thermodynamics.

Some resources like trees and animals get replenished fast when used, and we call them

‘renewable resources’. Some resources take a very long time to be replenished, like coal and

fossil fuel – these are called ‘non-renewable resources’. Then there are resources that are not

affected by how much is used, like the sun light, flowing water, wind and tide. These are called

perpetual resources. Energy produced from non-renewable resources like coal or petroleum is

called ‘nonrenewable energy’, while energy produced from renewable resources like wood

(dendro power), waste digestion (biogas) and vegetable oils (Bio diesel), or perpetual resources

like flowing water (hydropower), sunlight (solar power), wind and tide is called ‘renewable’

energy. One thing we must remember is that even though renewable resources can get

replenished fast, they can only last if we use them at a rate slower than they get replenished. If

we use them indiscriminately, without concern for their re-growth, they will be the ones to

disappear even before the non-renewable resources.

With the growing world population and the sophistication of our lifestyles, the limited

resources on earth are getting depleted at a rate higher than the rate at which it is replenished

naturally. We use them too much, and also make them unusable by polluting them. Added to this

are the effects of climate change and global warming, experience by the world due to the

increased emissions of green house gases carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen by

human activities such as burning fossil fuels and discharge of untreated wastes into the

environment. This is why we have to make a conscious effort to limit our resource use and stop

polluting the environment, allowing the earth to continue supporting life on earth by its own

natural processes.

For sustainable development to be achieved, professional practice in engineering needs to

have a wider scope than the development of elegant solutions to narrowly specified technical

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problems. The challenge faced by Civil engineers in sustainable development is to make their

contribution to society to:

Reduce the adverse environmental and social aspects of developments

Improve their environmental performance

Improve their contribution to a high quality of life

Help society to move towards a more sustainable lifestyle, and

Ensure that products, services and infrastructure meeting these criteria are competitive in

the market place, and ideally the most competitive

The civil engineering profession recognizes the reality of limited natural resources, the

desire for a sustainable practices (including life-cycle analysis and sustainable design

techniques), and the need for social equity in the consumption of resources. To achieve these

objectives such implementation strategies should be made:

Promote broad understanding of economic, environmental, political, social, and technical

issues and processes as related to sustainable development;

Advance the skills, knowledge and information necessary for a sustainable future;

including habitats, natural systems, system flows, and the effects of all phases of the life

cycle of projects on the ecosystem;

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COURSE OUTCOME 13

“Able to apply reasoning to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues (if any)

and the consequent responsibilities relevant to professional Civil and Structural

Engineering practices.”