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SESI PENGAJIAN:

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:tlengaku membenarkan tesis (LPS/ Satjana/ Doktor Falsafah) ini di simpan di Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah i engan syarat-syarat kegunaan seperti berikut:

I. Tesis adalah bakmilik Universiti Malaysia Sabah. 2. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk tujuan pengajian sahaja. 3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis ini sebagai bahan pertukaran antara institusi pengajian tinggi. 4. •• Sila tandakan ( / )

SULIT

TERHAD

\I TIDAK TERHAD

CI a: ~----------~~~~~~==~~--(TANDATANGAN PENULIS)

~~at Tetap: 4-4- J 1Cfla n c.. y. c h~ I

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________ ~~ __ a_n~~~. --------__

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... ..-<\. TAN: * Potong yang tidak berkenaan.

(Mengandungi maldumat yang berdarjah keseJamatan . atau kepentingan Malaysia seperti yang termaktub di dalam AKTA RAHSIA RASMI 1972)

(Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang te~ah ditentukakan oleh organisasilbadan di mana penyelidikan dijalankan)

Disahkan oleh

(T ANDATANGAN PUST AKA WAN)

DR· 'lAs l), IN 001 BEN& /10 IAI

Nama Penyelia

Tarikh: ;)//5/'0).010 --------------------------

* Jika tesis ini SULIT atau TERHAD, sila lampiran surat daripada pihak berkuasalorgansasi berkenaan dengan menyatakan sekali sebab dan tempoh tesis ini perlu dikelaskan seb.agai SULIT danTERHAD.

* Tesis dimaksudkan sebagai tesis bagi Ijazah Doktor Falsafah dan Srujana secara penyelidikan, atau disertasi bagi pengajian secara ketja kursus dan penyelidikan, atau Laporan Projek Satjana Muda (LPSM).

QUALITY AND COST OF PROTEIN SOURCES CONSUMED IN KOTA KINABALU,

SABAH

SEOW CHIA CHIA

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR

OF FOOD SCIENCE WITH HONOURS (FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION)

SCHOOL OF FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

2010

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the material in this thesis is my own except for quotations,

excerpts, equations,

acknowledged.

15 April 2010

summaries and references, which have been duly

10 rt;. SEOW CHIA CHIA

HN2006-3296

ii

NAME

MATRIC NO.

TITLE

DEGREE

VIVA DATE

VERIFICATION

: SEOW CHIA CHIA

: HN2006-3296

: QUALITY AND COST OF PROTEIN SOURCES

CONSUMED IN KOTA KINABALU, SABAH.

: BACHELOR OF FOOD SCIENCE WITH HONOURS

(FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION)

: 12 MAY 2010

DECLARED BY

1. SUPERVISOR

DR. YASMIN BENG HOUI 001

2. CO-SUPERVISOR

DR. PETER MICHAEL BARLING

3. EXAMINER 1

DR. PATRICIA MATANJUN

4. EXAMINER 2

ASSOC. PROF. DR. CHYE FOOK YEE

5. DEAN

ASSOC. PROF. DR. MOHO. ISMAIL ABDULLAH

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor! Dr.

Yasmin Beng Houi Ooi of the School of Food Science and Nutrition! Universiti

Malaysia Sabah for her time and patience in supervising me until the completion of

this thesis. I was grateful to be given the opportunity to learn and grow in my

experience of carrying out proper scientific research work. Apart from that! I wish

to thank Professor Dr. Peter Barling for his continuous effort in giving advice and

guidance which lead to the conclusion of this thesis. Thirdly! I wish to thank my

parents for their understanding and financial help throughout this thesis. Lastly! I

wish to thank Ms. Jacqueline Joana! Ms. Melissa Tan Mei Wei! Ms. Lim Hui San and

Ms. How Whee Sim who have undeniably played an important role before! during

and after the research of this thesis. My special sense of gratitude to my mother

who has been the source of strength and determination for me to complete my

final year.

Seow Chia Chi a

15 April 2010

iV

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the consumption patterns of protein sources among adults aged 20 to 39 years in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. A total of 384 respondents comprised of 192 men and 192 women were interviewed. A semi-quantitative FFQ which consisted of 57 protein sources of both animal and plant proteins were used to evaluate the consumption pattern. Both gender was found to consume more protein sources from plants with mean intake of 27.37±7.71g for men and 25.06±5.74g for women (p<0.05) than animal with mean intake of 9.83±4.33g for men and 9.50±3.17g for women (p>0.05). Major foods contributing to protein intake were rice (235±96.18g), rice noodle (61.50±39.42g), milk (58.78± 38.1g) soya bean and soya bean products (8.05±40.21g), marine fish (27.01±7.37g) and chicken eggs (26.1±11.3g). Total protein contents of the food items were obtained from the Malaysian Food Composition Table. Prices of these foods were obtained from a hypermarket and a wet market in Kota Kinabalu. Qualities of proteins were ranked using chemical score based on FAOjUNUjWHO 1985. This information was used to develop Protein Source Index (PSI), which ranked the protein according to its content, quality and cost. Soya bean was the found to be the cheapest and high quality protein source at the top of the PSI. PSI can serve as a guide to improve nutrition status in impoverished communities at rural parts of Sabah.

v

A BSTRAK

Kualiti dan Kos Bagi Pengambilan Sumber Protein Oi Kota Kinabalu, Sabah

Kajian ini melaporkan corak pengambilan sumber protein antara responden berumur 20 hingga 30 tahun di Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. Sebanyak 384 responden merangkumi 192 lelaki dan 192 perempuan telah ditemu ramahkan . Borang Soal Selidik Frekuensi Semi Kuantitatif yang terdiri daripada 57 jenis makanan yang mengandungi protein daripada sumber haiwan dan tumbuhan. Lelaki dan wanita mengambil lebih banyak sumber protein daripada tumbuhan dengan min 27.27±7.71g bagi lelaki dan 25.06±S.74g bagi wanita (p<O.05) berbanding pengambilan sumber protein daripada haiwan dengan min 9.83±4.33g bagi lelaki dan 9.50±3.17g bagi wanita (p>O.OS). Sumber protein yang utama terdiri daripada nasi (23S±96.18g), bihun (61.50±39.42g), susu (58.78± 38.1g) kacang soya dan hasilannya (8.0S±40.21g), ikan laut (27.01±7.37g) and telur ayam (26.1±11.3g). Kandungan keseluruhan protein dalam makanan didapati daripada Jadual Komposisi Makanan Malaysia. Harga bagi makanan-makanan tersebut diambil daripada pasaraya dan pasar basah di Kota Kinabalu. Kualiti protein disusun mengikut kedudukan mengunakan skor kimia bepandukan FAOjUNUjWHO 1985. Informasi tersebut digunakan untuk membentuk Indeks Sumber Protein (PSI), yang menyusun kedudukan protein mengikut kuantiti, kualiti dan koso Kacang soya didapati mempunyai harga yang paling murah dan merupakan sumber protein yang berkualiti tinggi. PSI boleh digunakan sebagai satu panduan untuk menolong meningkatkan taraf nutrisi penduduk miskin.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE

DECLARATION

VERIFICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF APPENDICES

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

1.2 Objectives

1.3 Rationale

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Pattern Of Protein Intake In Malaysia

2.2 Source Of Dietary Protein

2.3 Prevalence Of Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

2.4 Types Of Protein Sources

2.4.1 Cereal And Grain Products

2.4.2 Vegetables And Vegetable Products

2.4.3 Starchy Roots And Tubers

2.4.4 Legumes, Legume Products and Nuts

2.4.5 Eggs

2.4.6 Fish, Shellfish and Products

vii

Page

ii

iii

iv

v

vi

vii

xi

xii

xiii

1

1

7

8

9

9

10

11

12

14

14

14

15

15

15

2.4.7 Milk and Milk Products

2.4.7 Meat and Meat Products

2.5 Assessment Of Pattern Of Protein Consumption

2.6 Assessment Of Quality Of Protein Sources

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Pattern of consumption of Protein Source

3.1.1 Locations

3.1.2 Subjects

3.1.3 Pilot Test

3.1.4 Ethical Issues

3.2 Protein Source Index (PSI) Development

3.2.1 Cost Of Protein Source

3.2.2 Protein Quantification and Quality Of Protein Source

3.3 Statistical Analysis

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Demographic distribution

4.2 Pattern of Consumption of Protein Sources

4.2.1 Consumption of Protein Sources by Income Status

4.2.2 Consumption of Protein Sources by Sex

4.3 Quantity and Quality of Protein Sources

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION

5.1 Limitations and Future Study

REFERENCES

viii

16

18

18

19

22

22

22

23

23

24

24

24

25

27

28

28

29

32

38

39

40

41

42

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Protein Complementarity In Practice

x

Page

6

Table 1.1

Table 2.1 Table 2.2

Table 2.3 Table 2.4

Table 2.5:

Table 3.1 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7 Table 4.8

Table 4.9

Table 4.10:

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Daily essential amino acids requirements of by different 2 age groups (males and females combined) Protein Intake in Malaysia, 1965 - 2005. 12 Classification of protein sources into seven major food 13 groups and their origins. Conditions for nutrient claims for proteins. 13 List of protein sources by food groups. 17

Protein value of meat and percentage of respondents of 18 HES 04/05 Amino acid scoring pattern by FAO/WHO/UNU (1985). 26 Summary of the Demographic Distribution 29 Ranking of top protein sources mostly consumed 30 Mean intake of plant and animal protein sources by 33 income status. Top ten protein sources commonly consumed by 34 socioeconomic groups. Top ten mostly consumed protein sources of plant and 35 animal origin . 36 Mean intake of protein sources between men and 36 women. Top ten mostly consumed protein sources by sex. 36 Ranking of Top Ten Protein Sources by Quantity and 37 Quality of protein. Top ten protein source ranked according to the cost 38 (RM/ kg edible protein) and their quality Top Ten Items in Protein Source Index 39

x

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendix A: Socio-demographic Questionnaire 53 Appendix B : Food Frequency Questionnaire 54 Appendix C : Study Information Sheet 59 Appendix D : Portion Size 61 Appendix E : Example of Calculation for Price(RM) Per kg of Total 63

Edible Portion Appendix F: Factors for Conversion of Nitrogen Content of Protein 64

Content (Selected Foods) Appendix G : Mean Intake of Protein Sources 65 Appendix H : Mean Intake of Protein Sources of Plant and Animal 68

Origin Appendix I: Protein Source Index (PSI) 71 Appendix J : Permission Letters to Conduct Survey 75

xi

AA

a-a: Ar

a-a: S-c

EAA/lAA

HES

FAO

Is

FNB: 10M

NEAA/ DAA

LAA

Le

LV

MANS

MOH

NCMF

NIP

NHANES

NHMS

NHMRC

NRV

NCCFN

PER

PDCAAS

PEM

PSI

RDA

RDI

RNI

Th

Tr

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

Amino Acid

Total Aromatic Amino Acid

Total Sulphur Containing Amino Acid

Essential Amino Acid/ Indispensable Amino Acid

Household Expenditure Survey

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

Isoleucine

Food and Nutrition Board: Institute of Medicine

Non-essential Amino Acid/ Dispensable Amino Acid

Limiting Amino Acid

Leucin

Lysine

Malaysian Adult Nutrition Survey

Ministry of Health

Nutrient Composition of Malaysian Food

Nutrition Information Panel

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

National Health and Morbidity Survey

National Health and Medical Research Council

Nutrient Reference Value

National Coordinating Committee on Food and Nutrition

Protein Efficiency Ratio

Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score

Protein-Energy Malnutrition

Protein Source Index

Recommended Daily Allowance

Recommended Dietary Intake

Recommended Nutrient Intake

Threonine

Tryptophan

viii

UNU

USDA

Va

WHO

United Nations University

United States Department of Agriculture

Valine

World Health Organization of the United Nations

viii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The importance of an adequate intake of protein is universally acknowledged.

Although much studies has been recorded about levels of protein intake, very little

description has been given of patterns of protein intake in Malaysia especially

Sabah where energy malnutrition is prevalent in rural areas at a rate of 10.6%

(MOH, 2008a). Sabah was also reported to have the highest incidence of urban

household poverty (Mok et al., 2007). Chronic energy deficiency is well established

to be associated with protein deficiency and low income groups. Hence, analysis of

commonly consumed protein sources by cost, quantity and quality are very crucial

in Sabah.

The principal nutritional value of food proteins is to supply essential amino

acids (EM) and an utilisable source of organic nitrogen to meet physiological

needs, especially those related to protein synthesis and turnover (Young and

Pellett, 1991a). Essential amino acids, found in abundance in high-quality dietary

protein, are required daily by all human subjects, both those in health and disease,

to maintain the dynamic balances of protein metabolism. The ratio and amounts of

each EM in a protein source determines the protein nutritional quality. In this

respect, not all amino acids are equivalent. Amino acids can be roughly divided into

two categories - the essential amino acids (EMs) and non-essential amino acids

(NEMs). Of the 20 amino acids commonly found in proteins, nine are essential and

their daily amount of requirement as recommended by FAOjWHOjUNU (2007) are

shown in Table 1.1. As observed, the group with the highest requirement of EMs

are infants, followed by preschool children aged one to two years. The growth rate

at both infant and preschool children is of the highest in human lifecycle.

Table 1.1: Daily essential amino acids requirements of by different age grou~s (males and females combined).

Essential Amino Acids Age (years)

(mgt kg of body weight) 0.5 1-2 3-10 11-14 15-18 >18

Histidine 22 15 12 12 11 10 Isoleucine 36 27 23 22 21 20 Leucine 73 54 44 44 42 39 Lysine 64 45 35 35 33 30 Methionine + Cysteine 31 22 18 17 16 15 Phenylalanine + Tyrosine 59 40 30 30 28 25 Threonine 34 23 18 18 17 15 Tryptophan 9.5 6.4 4.8 4.8 4.5 4 Valine 49 36 29 29 28 26 Source: FAOjWHOjUNU, 2007

Some of these EAAs are more essential than others: arginine and histidine

are semi-essential, as the rates of endogenous synthesis are too low to support

optimal growth in the fetus and child, but are not required by the adult. The

requirement for methionine can be provided by cysteine plus a source of methyl

groups (such as choline) and the requirement for cysteine can be met by

methionine . Tyrosine can be made from phenylalanine, but phenylalanine cannot

be made from tyroSine.

The most Significant function of amino acids in the present context is to

provide for the requirements of protein synthesis. Each protein in the body is

comprised of a specific and unique ratio of the essential amino acids. Approximately

three grams to four hundred grams of protein is turned over daily in the adult

human body. This is a consequence of the senescence and apoptotic degradation

of cells of every sort in the body.

In general, the proteins of these degraded cells are proteolytically cleaved

after the cells have been scavenged by the reticuloendothelial system of the body

and are recycled as their original form. However, several tissues of the body

(principally the liver) contain specific transaminases that can transfer nitrogen from

2

individual amino acids to a-ketoglutarate, to strip nitrogen from that amino acid

(Gilani et al., 2008). Once this has happened, the corresponding a-ketoacid will be

catabolised to smaller fragments, ultimately degraded and oxidised to carbon

dioxide.

So the recycling of amino acids is accompanied by some loss of each

essential amino acid through these degradative processes. Consequently, a

proportion of each of the recycled essential amino acids is lost as carbon dioxide

(C02) and ammonia (NH3). However, this proportion varies from one essential

amino acid to the next; essential amino acids are therefore required in very

different amounts. The result is that all humans have a daily requirement for

protein. This lead to requirement of high quality protein per day but not all EM are

required in the same amounts for human growth and replenishment as shown in

Table 1.1.

Milward et al. (2008) defined protein quality as a protein's ability to provide

specific patterns of amino acids to satisfy the demands for synthesis of protein as

measured by animal growth or, in humans, nitrogen balance. The efficiency with

which a given source of food protein is utilized to support amino acid and nitrogen

balance depends on the amounts of specific amino acids in the dietary source.

Considerable and interesting experimental data have defined the quantities of

individual essential amino acids in dietary protein.

For example, this has been investigated in a study on children during amino

acid supplementation trials (Harper et al., 1970). It should be noted that the

requirements for infants are much greater than those of adults, as a consequence

of the need for infants to lay down net amounts of protein during growth. These

values will also be different during pregnancy, lactation, illness and recovery from

illness. It is the amounts of specific limiting essential amino acids (EM) relative to

3

the EAA requirements for balanced human protein turnover that determines the

quality of a protein source.

Essential amino acids are requires in substantially different amounts from

each other. Inevitably, every protein will have a limiting amino acid which is the

essential amino aciq present in the protein source in the lowest ratio to the ideal.

As protein synthesis cannot continue when anyone essential amino acid is absent,

and amino acids cannot be stored, once all of the limiting amino acid has been

converted to protein, the remaining amino acids, however essential, will inevitably

be destined to be degraded and irreversibly metabolised to small carbon fragments

and ammonia (then to urea), rather than to be used for protein synthesis.

Proteins from different sources have different quality according to their ratio

of the essential amino acids, and this quality can be classified as high and low. Low

quality protein does not contain all essential amino acids in the correct proportions

for human requirements for protein synthesis, whereas high quality

protein contains the essential amino acids in the correct proportions for human

protein turnover (Young and Pellett, 1991b).

An easily available and objective basis for comparing the quality of different

foods in relation to their protein content is to use computed values for the chemical

score of the source. The chemical score is a prediction of the metabolic value of a

protein food source, based on a comparison of the amounts of each of the essential

amino acids (EAAs) in a standard quantity of the protein to a "profile" assumed (or

determined) to reflect the true requirements for human protein synthesis. The

score for the limiting EAA is taken to represent the value of the food (Young and

Pellett, 1991a). This raises the question of a suitable reference or amino

acid scoring pattern in computing chemical scores that will be discussed below.

4

There are numerous procedures for evaluating the nutritional value of

dietary protein sources in human nutrition. Young and Pellett (1991a) noted that

systematic evaluation of dietary sources of protein involves initial chemical

testing followed by biological assays. For example, in an evaluation of new or

modified proteins from new varieties of grains or legumes, the first step would be

a chemical analysis of the protein content and amino acid profile, from which an

amino acid score can be derived, followed by in vitro tests for

digestibility. Subsequently, a bioassay for availability of amino acids and test of

protein quality might be undertaken. A final stage would involve clinical and

metabolic studies in human subjects. For this present study, content of certain

specific essential amino acids will be taken as an appropriate and sufficient basis

for judging protein quality.

An additional consideration is the possibility of mixing protein sources in the

same meal, to thereby improve the overall quality of the protein in the diet. This

process is known as "protein complementarity". These concepts are expressed in

Figure 1. The admixture of two low quality proteins, each with a different limiting

amino acid, can yield an overall amino acid balance comparable to that of a higher

quality protein. Thus a mixture of beans (which lack sulphur-containing amino acids

only) and wheat (lacking lysine only) can give, in the right proportion, a mixture

which is almost ideal.

5

c o :i:i 'iii

lie

Lys

Met and Cys

Trp

lie

BEANS

WHEAT

8. E o LyS ......

U Metand Cys '0

~ o c E <

Trp

lie

Lys

Met and Cys

BEANSANDWHEAT(1 :1 RATIO)

Trp.II ••• lIiIi.eEB~~@iJ o 25 so 75

Percentage of Ideal, (%)

Figure 1: Protein complementarity in practice Source: Milward, 2008

100 125 1SO

Dietary data from 6,742 adult respondents in the Malaysian Adult Nutrition

Survey (MANS) 2003 were used to provide quantitative information regarding the

contribution of specific food protein sources commonly consumed among Malaysian

adults. For this present study, different sources of protein will be discussed in

relation to their amino acid content, human amino acid requirements, dietary

protein quality and their pricing. This proposed research will be based on foods

commonly consumed by Malaysian adults.

Major issues in this research include obtaining the price of food items that

represent the cost of individual food items. Pricing for raw food items and the

equivalent processed or manufactured food items are different by areas in

6

Malaysia. In a fully capitalistic economy such as that operating in Malaysia, the

prices charged for most individual food items are not fixed. They change according

to supply and demand, with seasonal availability as an important determinant of

price. Other factors may operate locally, and include geographical location, soil

suitability, transport costs, weather patterns, importation from neighboring

countries and cultural demands. Tan et al., (1985) reported that the price of fish of

the same species differs depending on location and several of the factors presented

above. As for the fluctuation in the price of processed food, this may depend on

seasonal festivities, especially in Malaysia which consists of different ethnic and

religious groups.

1.2 Objectives

The study has three objectives:

1. To determine protein sources commonly consumed in Sabah.

2. To compute a Protein Source Index (PSI) incorporating quality, cost and total

protein content per 100 g of edible food.

3. To find the cheapest food item of highest total protein content and good quality

among other protein sources commonly consumed in Sabah.

7

1.3 Rationale

The rationale of this study is to establish optional protein sources for poor people in

making better choices when purchasing protein sources in terms of quality by

monetary value. Poverty level and price of consumer products are highest in East

Malaysia and Sabah was reported with the highest incidence of urban household

poverty in the country based on the Household Expenditure Survey (HES)

2004/2005 (Mok et al., 2007).

A number of studies revealed levels of protein intake in many countries but

very little description has been given of patterns protein intake. There are extensive

data on the quality of protein sources on the basis of amino acids composition but

there are no records on the present proposed study. Tey et al., (2008) pointed out

that consumers emphasize quality as the top priority in making a decision to

purchase food. Similar results were reported by Taljaard et al. (2006), that factors

other than economic ones are becoming more important to consumers when

purchasing food.

The outcome of the study can be use to predict the contribution a food

protein, or mixture of food proteins, makes toward meeting amino acid

requirements for the purpose of nutritional consultation. The result of this study will

serve as a useful reference of future research and helps in improving the availability

of local data sources. An index incorporating both chemical score and cost can be

used as a guide to plan shopping for adequate protein intake.

8

CHAPTER 2

:LITERATURE REVIEW

The present study relates to both the quality and the price of different food items,

within the context of the provision of adequate levels of protein in the diets of

impoverished people. Tan (1970) reported pattern of consumption of p~otein of

high biological value in families of low income groups in Singapore. However, this

study does not look at quality of protein consumed. The current proposed study not

only look at cost of protein source consumed but also the protein quality.

Young and Pellett (1991b) noted that the quantity of nitrogen in foods was

an important basis of protein nutrition, but that proteins of various origins are not

of equal nutritional value. Research undertaken during the first decades of this

century underscored the fact that protein nutrition is fundamentally a matter of

amino acid nutrition; by the 1920s it was apparent that about half of the amino

acids that are incorporated into protein structure are essential, in that they cannot

be synthesised de novo from glucose and a source of reduced nitrogen (e.g. NH/

or an organic metabolisable derivative). The remaining amino acids are non­

essential, and the relative quantities of these are of lesser Significance from a

nutritional standpoint.

2.1 Pattern Of Protein Intake In Malaysia

Dietary protein intakes of Malaysian adults may depend on several factors such as

socioeconomic status, vulnerability to deficiencies, diet composition (e.g., plant

versus animal foods) and geographical locations (e.g., Orang Asli residing in the

interior of Malaysia). In several studies of nutritional status and dietary pattern of

Malaysians, it was reported that there were lower consumption of protein sources

such as milk and dairy products and meat and poultry, among the low-income

communities (Chee et al., 1996; Lim et al., 2000; Khor and Zalilah, 2003). The

Malaysian's mean intake of total protein was about 55 g and men consumed about

10 g more than women (MOH, 2008).

In Malaysian Adult Nutrition Survey (2003), both men and women in Sabah

were found to have the highest protein intake. The highest intake of protein was in

the 30 to 39 years age group (57 g) and the lowest was observed in the 50 to 59

years group. Men of the former group have the highest intake of protein, whereas

women who consumed the most protein falls in the age group of 20 to 29 years old

(Norimah et al., 2008). Hence, selection of subjects within the age ranging from 20

to 39 years would be the most ideal, as their pattern of protein consumption data

will lead to first objective of this study. Protein intake is 65 g/d for Sabahans

against a national average of 59 g/d (Kandiah et al., 2008). The sources of high

quality protein include marine fish, powdered milk, chicken egg and anchovies. The

proportion of individuals consuming these items daily is 40.8%, 17.1%, 12.1% and

11.9% respectively (Norimah et al., 2008).

2.2 Source Of Dietary Protein

A detailed analysis of the diets showed that the protein sources in the rural diet

were mainly marine fish, legumes and eggs, while meat and chicken were more

frequently consumed by the urban groups (Chee et al., 1997). However, with global

prices increase and depletion of fish stocks, the status quo might not be

sustainable. Fruits, sugars, fats, and alcohol do not provide much protein, so a diet

based only on these foods would have a good chance of being too low in protein.

Eggs, cow's milk, meat, and fish are high quality protein. This means that they

have large amounts of all the essential amino acids. Soybeans, quinoa (a grain),

and spinach also are considered high quality protein. Other protein sources of non­

animal origin usually have all of the essential amino acids, but the amounts of one

or two of these amino acids may be low.

10

REFERENCES

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Arshad, F.M., Mohamed, Z. and Latiff, LA. 2006. Changes in agri-food supply chain in Malaysia: implications on marketing training needs. Kuala Lumpur: Department of Agriculture Malaysia.

aa'bji, A. 5., Aidilla, M., Gugapreya, c., Lai, C. J., Bazlina N. B., Cahyana, c., Nor L Hayati C. P. and Suriati, Z. 2007.Protein quality of anchovy, mackerel and

canned sardine samples. Malaysian Journal of Nutrition, 13(2):171-177.

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