WORK ECOLOGY AND HUMAN · PDF fileFEM 3104 /PJJ/SEM KEDUA 2010-2011 9. FITRAH MANUSIA Sumber...

WORK ECOLOGYAND HUMAN

FEM 3104FEM 3104

DR ROJANAH BINTI KAHARDR ROJANAH BINTI KAHAR

AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

FEM 3104 /PJJ/SEM KEDUA 2010-2011 1

InstructorInstructor

� DR ROJANAH BT. KAHAR

� Jabatan Pembangunan Manusia dan Pengajian Keluarga, FEM

� 03 - 89467087� 03 - 89467087

� [email protected]

� [email protected]


SinopsisSinopsis

� Kursus ini merangkumi aspek sikap, moral dan motivasi serta cara gaya dalam penyeliaan kerja dan pekerja serta interaksi sosial sebagai penentu produktiviti pekerja dan kepuasan kerja. Masalah pekerja juga diberikan tumpuan.diberikan tumpuan.

� This course encompasses the aspect of attitude, moral and motivation and style in work and employee supervisions and interaction as a determinant of work productivity and job satisfaction. The problems of workers are also emphasized.


Hasil Pembelajaran KursusHasil Pembelajaran Kursus

� Menerangkan konsep dan teori asas psikologi kerja (C2)

� Menghuraikan salingkait cara gaya penyeliaan kerja dan penyeliaan pekerja penyeliaan kerja dan penyeliaan pekerja dengan produktiviti (C4, P2, CS)

� Menghubungkait antara ekologi kerja dengan pembangunan manusia (C5, A3, CT)


Skop & TajukSkop & Tajuk

� Pengenalan psikologi kerja� Konsep dan pengertian kerja� Sistem pengeluaran dan pekerjaan� Penentu tindakan dan gelagat pekerja� Model-model pengurusan� Model-model pengurusan� Aspirasi kerja dan kepuasan kerja� Prestasi kerja dan produktiviti� Motivasi kerja� Kesan struktur dan teknologi organisasi

ke atas pekerja� Reka bentuk kerja dan kesannya


Work Ecology & Human DevelopmentWork Ecology & Human Development

INTRODUCTION: CONCEPTS

AND DEFINITIONAND DEFINITION


CONCEPTS

EcologyWork


Psychology

Human Development

IS

WORK

A

IN GREEK, THE WORD

‘WORK’ A

FOUR-LETTER

WORD?


‘WORK’ MEAN

SORROW!

FITRAH MANUSIAFITRAH MANUSIA

� Sumber manusia- akal, bakat, kecerdikan, panca indera, anggota badan : cari rezeki

� Sumber alam- rezeki yang ada di muka bumi, lautan, perut bumi sebagai sumber: anugerah dari ALLAH

� Fungsi manusia?� Fungsi manusia?� Memakmurkan bumi ALLAH dengan bekerja, cari

rezeki, mendapat makanan yang baik, pakaian yang selesa, tempat tinggal yang selesa dan kumpul harta dengan keredaan ALLAH

� Cara? Dengan ilmu dan kebijaksanaan aqal, dengan harta dan tenaga

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Why?Why?

� Source of identity� Becoming adult� People you spent time with� For survivalFor survival� Theological – ibadat� To provide other to work� Occupation replaces work� Career

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What is Work?What is Work?

� Service performed by an employee at the request and under the control of an employer and, on the employer's time.employer and, on the employer's time.

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� Something that one is doing, making or performing, especially as an occupation or undertaking:

◦ A duty or task: begin the day’s work◦ A duty or task: begin the day’s work

◦ An amount of such activity either done or required: a week’s work

◦ One’s place of employment : should I call you at home or work?

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� Physical or mental effort or activity directed toward the production or accomplishment of somethingaccomplishment of something

◦ A job employment: looking for work

◦ A trade, profession, or other means of livelihood

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In Human Labour, Work may refer to:In Human Labour, Work may refer to:

� "Work“� one's place of employment.

� Work (project management) � the effort applied to produce a deliverable or accomplish a task.

� Labour (economics)� measure of the work done � Labour (economics)� measure of the work done by human beings.

� Wage labour � a worker sells their labour and an employer buys it

� Manual labour � physical work done by people

� Sex work � employment in the sex industry

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SURVEY ON 35000 AMERICANS, 2003SURVEY ON 35000 AMERICANS, 2003

� Challenging task

� Participation indecision making

� Some control over a job environment

� Opportunity for career development� Opportunity for career development

� Competent leadership

� Supervisors were concerned with the employee wellbeing

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What is Ecology?What is Ecology?

� An ecosystem can be defined as any situation where there is interaction between organisms and their environment

� The study of the interaction between living � The study of the interaction between living organisms and their environment (physical & social environment).

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What is Ecology? What is Ecology?

� Terms “ecology” (oekologie) defined first by Ernst Haeckel in 1866

� The science of the relationships between organisms and their environments.organisms and their environments.

� Human ecology �The branch of sociology that is concerned with studying the relationships between human groupsand their physical and social environments.

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What is Ecology?What is Ecology?

� It seeks to explain the factors that determine the range of environments that organisms occupy and that determine how abundant organisms are within those ranges.

� The physical components of the environment � The physical components of the environment include all non-biological constituents, such as temperature, wind, inorganic chemicals, and radiation.

� The biological components of the environment include the organisms.

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The first principle of ecology is that The first principle of ecology is that

� Each living organism has an ongoing and continual relationship with every other element that makes up its environment

� Ecology is concerned with patterns of � Ecology is concerned with patterns of distribution (where organisms occur) and with patterns of abundance (how many organisms occur) in space and time.

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What is Psychology?What is Psychology?

� Psychology- various definitions� Simplest definition:

“the science of mental health OR mental life” (Miller, 1996)life” (Miller, 1996)

� Mental refers to 3 phenomenon:

� Behaviors

� Thoughts and

� Emotions

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PsychologyPsychology

� a theoretical, educational and applied science connecting the scientific study of mental operations and behavior or performance.

� the application or usage of understanding, knowledge and skills to a number of areas knowledge and skills to a number of areas of human activity, involving issues concerning with daily activities such as education, events, people and their task, employment, association, relationship as well as the treatment of mental health difficulties.

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FIVE Areas in FIVE Areas in basic psychologybasic psychology

� Physiological psychology

� Cognitive psychology

� Developmental psychology

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� Developmental psychology

� Social psychology

� Personality psychology

Cognitive PSYCHOLOGYCognitive PSYCHOLOGY

� Focuses on our cognitive functioning i.e our thought processes.

� How well we remember information under various condition and how we under various condition and how we weigh up information when making decisions.

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What is Developmental psychology? What is Developmental psychology?

� Developmental psychology is the scientific study of progressive psychological changes that occur in human beings as their age (throughout adult life)

� Eg: How and when children become able to � Eg: How and when children become able to understand particular concepts and how they learn language.

� Studying the Life Span from � Conception to Death

� Integrates all aspects of human development.

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Social psychologySocial psychology

� Concerns how our behaviours, thoughts and emotions effectand are affected by other people.

� How groups of people make decisions � How groups of people make decisions and the extent to which a person’s attitudes towards particular groups of people influence his or her behaviour towards them

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PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGYPERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY

� Focuses on people’s

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What is Work Psychology?What is Work Psychology?

� Work psychology is defined in terms of its ecology/context of application, and is not in itself one of the sub-discipline of psychologydiscipline of psychology

◦ It is an area of applied psychology

◦ Work psychologists use concepts, theories and techniques derived from all areas of basic psychology

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What is Work Psychology? What is Work Psychology?

� The study on people’s behavior, thoughts and emotions related to their work

� Area of psychology dealing with job analysis, defining and measuring job

� Area of psychology dealing with job analysis, defining and measuring job performance, performance appraisal, tests, employment interviews, employee selection and training, and Human factors.

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Work PsychologyWork Psychology

� An area of applied psychology

� Use concepts,

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� Use concepts, theories and techniques derived from all areas of basic psychology

WORK PSYCHOLOGY?WORK PSYCHOLOGY?

� work psychology is a study that deals with the performance of people at work. It deals with how a particular organization functions and how a small organization functions and how a small group of people behave when they work

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Origins of Work PsychologyOrigins of Work Psychology

� Has 2 distinct roots within applied

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applied psychology

◦ Traditional

◦ Human relations

TraditionalTraditional

� A) Fitting man to job (FMJ)� B) Fitting the job to the man

(FJM)� Both concern the relationship

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� Both concern the relationship between individuals and their work

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All this phenomenon is studied thru work All this phenomenon is studied thru work psychologypsychology

� Why work?

� Why is working important?

� What contributes to work productivity?

� Etc. Etc…..

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Work Psychology TodayWork Psychology Today

�Also known under the name of:

� Industrial psychology

� Occupational psychology

� Psychology of work and organization

� Work and organizational psychology

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� Work and organizational psychology

� Vocational psychology

� Personnel Psychology/ talent assessment

�In a simpler term � Work psychology encompasses both the individual and organizational level of analysis.

Guion (1965) defines I-O psychology as "the scientific study of the relationship between man and the world of work:... in the process of making a living" (p.

817).

Blum and Naylor (1968) define it as Blum and Naylor (1968) define it as "simply the application or extension of psychological facts and principles to the

problems concerning human beings operating within the context of business

and industry" (p 4)

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The "industrial" side of I-O psychology has its historical origins in research on individual differences, assessment, and

the prediction of performance. This branch of the field crystallized during

World War I, in response to the need to World War I, in response to the need to rapidly assign new troops to duty

stations. After the War the growing industrial base in the U.S. added

impetus to I-O psychology

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Figure 11.11 Erikson’s stage theory

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Figure 11.12 Piaget’s stage theory

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Figure 11.13 Piaget’s conservation task

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What is Human Development?What is Human Development?

� Human development is the process of growing to maturity and reaching one’s full potential in biological terms

� This entails growth from one called � This entails growth from one called zygote to an adult human being

� The psychological study of human development is called developmental psychology

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Work Ecology and Human Work Ecology and Human DevelopmentDevelopment

� Attempts to apply ecological and psychological perspectives to understand the behavior of people in their work ecosystem which can shape or aid the ecosystem which can shape or aid the workers development/well-being and organization

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Human Development….Human Development….

� In psychological terms� HD is about mental health, self-esteem, success in significant

relationships, happiness

� In Political-economic terms� HD is about stability, security and relative prosperity� HD is about stability, security and relative prosperity

� In Social terms� HD is about literacy, education, social relationships, quality of

life etc

� In Moral terms� HD is about development of conscience, moral awareness &

moral behaviors

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FEM 3104 /PJJ/SEM KEDUA 2010-2011 48

FEM 3104 /PJJ/SEM KEDUA 2010-2011 49

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Industrial and Organizational PsychologyIndustrial and Organizational PsychologyIntroduction to the World of WorkIntroduction to the World of Work

FEM 3104 /PJJ/SEM KEDUA 2010-2011 52

Copyright Paul E. Spector, All rights reserved, March 15, 2005

WHAT IS I/O PSYCHOLOGY?WHAT IS I/O PSYCHOLOGY?

� Psychology is the science of human behavior� I/O psychology is the science of human

behavior at work� Dual focus� Efficiency/productivity of organizations� Efficiency/productivity of organizations� Health/well-being of employees� Dual nature� Application of the science of psychology to

the workplace� Development/discovery of scientific

psychological principles at work

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Definition of Industrial and Definition of Industrial and Organizational (IOrganizational (I--O) PsychologyO) Psychology

Blum & Naylor (1968)-

� “the application or extension of

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� “the application or extension of psychological facts ad principle to the problems concerning human beings operating within the context of business and industry”

Definition of Industrial and Organizational Definition of Industrial and Organizational (I(I--O) PsychologyO) Psychology

� Industrial and Organizational Psychology is a branch of Psychology devoted to organizations and the workplace.

� Therefore, an I-O Psychologists � Therefore, an I-O Psychologists contribute to an organizations success by � improving the performance and well-being of

its people. � researches and identifies how behaviors and

attitudes can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, and feedback systems.

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Definition of Industrial and Organizational (IDefinition of Industrial and Organizational (I--O) O) PsychologyPsychology

� Applied I-O Psychology � concerned with utilizing knowledge gathered from scientific inquiry “to solve real problems in the world of work” Muchinsky (2006),

◦ Example problems include hiring better employees, reducing absenteeism, improving communication, and increasing job satisfaction

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SPECIFIC AREAS OF CONCERNSPECIFIC AREAS OF CONCERN

� Recruiting and selecting employees for jobs� Training employees� Assessing performance� Defining and analyzing jobs� Determining people feel about work� Determining why people act as they do at work� Determining why people act as they do at work� Effects work has on people� Effects people have on one another� How organizations are structured and function� Designing work� Designing tools and equipment� Employee Health and Safety

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The Most Popular I/O Research Topics in Eight CountriesThe Most Popular I/O Research Topics in Eight Countries

Country Topics

Canada Career development, Employee selection, job stress, leadership

England Employee selection, gender, job stress, leadership, turnover

Germany Job Stress, motivation, training, work environment

India Job satisfaction, job stress, motivation,

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India Job satisfaction, job stress, motivation, organizational level

Israel Career development, job satisfaction, motivation, performance appraisal, values

Japan Career development, job stress, leadership, motivation

Scandinavia Gender, job stress, shift work, unemployment

United States

Career development, employee selection, leadership, performance appraisal

History of I/OHistory of I/O

� Began early 1900s� World War I first mass testing� Between wars psychology helping business: I side� Hawthorne studies impact of social aspects: O side� World War II: Psychology and the war effort� World War II: Psychology and the war effort� Civil rights movement: Job relevance� Technological change

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Timeline of Major EventsTimeline of Major Events

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What is it?What is it?

� Measures the efficiency of workers and the costs associated with producing a unit of output.

� Productivity specifically relates output to the amount of production

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� Productivity specifically relates output to the amount of production time required in producing each unit.

� The cost factors of the report are unit labor costs and compensation per hour.

Why is it important?Why is it important?

� Economic indicator. � Aid economic policymakers in assessment

of current economic activity and in economic analysis.

� Aid Bureau of Economic Analysis in compiling compensation measures for compiling compensation measures for National Income and Product Accounts.

� Assessment of labor requirements. � Studies of relationships among productivity,

wages, prices, and employment. � Aid in understanding sources of economic

growth.

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PRODUCTIVITYPRODUCTIVITY

� Productivity: Output per hours depends on:◦ Capital investment

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◦ Capital investment

◦ Technology

◦ Capacity utilization

◦ Managerial skills

THE ORIGINSTHE ORIGINSOF WORK PSYCHOLOGYOF WORK PSYCHOLOGY

� Work psychology has at least two distinct roots.

� One resides in a pair of traditions termed 'fitting the man [sic] to the job' (FMJ) 'fitting the man [sic] to the job' (FMJ) and 'fitting the job to the man[sic]'(FJM). The FMJ tradition manifests itself in employee selection, training and vocational guidance.

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FMJ vs FJMFMJ vs FJM

�The FMJ and FJM traditions essentially concern the relationship between individuals and their work.

�The other root of work psychology can be loosely labelled human relations. It is be loosely labelled human relations. It is concerned with the complex interplay between individuals, groups, organizations and work. It therefore emphasizes social factors at work much more than FMJ and FJM.

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Relay Assembly Test Room StudyRelay Assembly Test Room Study

This work was followed up with what became known as the Relay Assembly Test Room Study. A small group of female assembly workers was taken from their large department, and stationed in a separate room so that their working conditions

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separate room so that their working conditions could be controlled effectively. Over a period of more than a year, changes were made in the length of the working day and working week, the length and timing of rest pauses and other aspects of the work context. Productivity increased after every change, and the gains were maintained even after all conditions returned to their original levels.

Why did these results occur?Why did these results occur?

Clearly, factors other than those deliberately manipulated by the researchers were responsible. The researchers had allowed the workers certain privileges at work, and had taken a close interest in the group. Hence some factor probably to do with feeling special, or guessing what the researchers were investigating, seemed

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guessing what the researchers were investigating, seemed to be influencing the workers' behaviour. The problem of a person's behaviour being affected by the knowledge that they are in an experiment has come to be called the Hawthorne effect. The more general lessons here are: (i) it is difficult to experiment with people without altering some conditions other than those intended, and (ii) people's behaviour is substantially affected by their interpretation of what is happening around them (Adair,1984).

� These conclusions were extended by a study of a group of male workers who wired up equipment in the Bank Wiring Room. A researcher sat in the corner and observed the group's activities. At first this generated activities. At first this generated considerable suspicion, but apparently after a time the men more or less forgot about the researcher's presence..

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� Once this happened, certain phenomena became apparent. First,there were social norms: that is, shared ideas about how things shouldbe. Most importantly, there was a norm about what constituted anappropriate level of production. This was high enough to keepmanagement off the men's backs, but less than they were capable of.Workers who consistently exceeded the productivity norm or fellshort of it were subjected to social pressure to conform. Anothernorm concerned supervisors‘ behaviour. Supervisors were expectedto be friendly and informal with the men: one who was more formaland officious was strongly disapproved of. Finally, there were twoand officious was strongly disapproved of. Finally, there were twoinformal groups in the room, with some rivalry between them. TheBank Wiring Room showed clearly how social relationships betweenworkers were important determinants of work behaviour. Theserelationships were often more influential than either official companypolicy or monetary rewards

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Kajian Kajian HawthorneHawthorne

�Kajian ini merupakan kajian sistematik pertama yang mendedahkan pengaruh faktor manusia dalam situasi pekerjaan (Berkley & Rouse, 1990).

�Kajian ini mendapati bahawa banyak masalah wujud dalam hubungan pekerja dan pengurus, bukan disebabkan kekurangan pengkhususan tugas atau upah yang mencukupi ; tetapi disebabkan pengaruh disebabkan kekurangan pengkhususan tugas atau upah yang mencukupi ; tetapi disebabkan pengaruh sosial dan tekanan psikologi. Apabila pencahayaan kumpulan ujian ditingkatkan, daya pengeluaran didapati bertambah sebagaimana telah dijangkakan, sungguhpun pertambahan itu tidak tetap. Namun demikian, terdapat juga kecenderungan bagi daya pengeluaran untuk terus bertambah sekalipun pencahayaannya kemudian dikurangkan.

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� Dalam satu set uji kaji yang baru, sekumpulan kecil pekerja telah diletakkan di dlm bilik yg berasingan dan beberapa pembolehubah ditukar.

� “Upah ditambah, tempoh waktu rehat yang berbeza lamanya diperkenalkan, masa bekerja dalam sehari dan seminggu lamanya diperkenalkan”.

� Para penyelidik yang bertindak sebagai penyelia juga � Para penyelidik yang bertindak sebagai penyelia juga membenarkan kumpulan2 itu memilih sendiri waktu rehat dan boleh mengeluarkan pendapat berhubung dengan apa-apa perubahan lain yang dijangkakan.

� Sekali lagi hasilnya didapati meningkat mengikut masa tetapi ia juga naik dan turun secara tidak tetap.

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�Kajian yg telah dijalankan oleh Elton Mayor ini telah membawa sumbangan yang besar dan baru dalam dunia pengurusan.

�Menurut Cooper (1980), hasil uji kaji Hawthornetelah menyumbangkan kepada revolusi baru dalam ideologi organisasi dan pengurusan melalui dua cara iaitu mencabar pendekatan fizikal @ kejuruteraan untuk meningkatkan motivasi dan menjadikan untuk meningkatkan motivasi dan menjadikan tekanan pertama dalam pendekatan struktur dan hierarki pada organisasi.

�Dalam ertikata lain: “tiada cara saintifik atau cara terbaik untuk memotivasikan pekerja supaya lebih produktif melainkan dengan memberikan autoriti kepada pekerja untuk menguruskan organisasi.

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� Ekoran daripada ujikaji Hawthorne, corak latihan pengurusan dalam organisasi tertentu telah mula diubah.

� Daripada kemahiran teknik kepada kemahiran pengurusan manusia.

� Kajian Mayo ini telah melahirkan satu � Kajian Mayo ini telah melahirkan satu minat baru mengenai dinamik kumpulan di kalangan pengurusan dan manfaat kumpulan sebagai tambahan kepada tumpuan mereka yg dahulu terhadap ‘pekerja secara individu’.

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� Kajian Hawthorne dimulakan sebagai satu percubaan untuk menyelidiki kaitan antara takat pencahayaan di tempat kerja dan daya pengeluaran para pekerja.

� Para penyelidik Western Electric telah membahagikan pekerja kepada membahagikan pekerja kepada kumpulan ujian yang sengaja dikenakan perubahan-perubahan pencahayaan dan kumpulan kawalan yang pencahayaannya sentiasa dalam keadaan tetap

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Layers of influence model

Source: Dahlgren G and Whitehead M (1991), In Acheson (1998).

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The human development indices: The human development indices: at the forefront of HD measurement developmentat the forefront of HD measurement development

� The HDI (Human Development Index)- a summary measure of human development

� The GDI (Gender-related Development Index)- the HDI adjusted for gender inequality

� The GEM (Gender Empowerment Measure)- Measures gender equality in economic and politicalparticipation and decision making

� The HPI (Human Poverty Index)- Captures the level of human poverty

� Others

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Why the HDI?Why the HDI?

The fundamental conceptual shift:•Human development is both an outcome and a process of enlarging people’s choices to lead lives they value;• Economic growth is only a means, though an important one, for human development.

Human development accounting: Human development accounting: breath vs focus

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Problems in PerformanceProblems in Performance

� External Influence

� Management Influence

� Individual weaknesses

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� Individual weaknesses

External InfluenceExternal Influence

� Family problems

� Social norms

Labour market situation

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� Labour market situation

� Government actions/procedures

� Work organization policy

� Working environment

Management InfluenceManagement Influence

� Management weaknesses

� Unmotivated working environment

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� Personality problem

� Job task not suitable

� Lack of training

� Unable to determine task level

Individual weaknessesIndividual weaknesses

☻Lack of motivation

☻Lazy☻Personality clash☻Not satisfied with

☻Substance abuser

☻Ill

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☻Not satisfied with job/tasks given

☻‘Kaki ponteng’☻Did not

understand job specification.

☻Mentally ill

ConclusionConclusion

� The nexus between ecology + work + human developmen?

� Selection of works?

� Organization/industry� Organization/industry

� Government/Private Company

� Criterias for

� Benefit for individual? Money/Status/ Living

� Historical Development will be discussed in the next topic/unit.

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WORK ECOLOGY AND HUMAN · PDF fileFEM 3104 /PJJ/SEM KEDUA 2010-2011 9. FITRAH MANUSIA Sumber...

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