Post on 09-Feb-2018
7/22/2019 Laporan Praktikum Proses Unit Operasi Teknik I: Fluidisasi
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Xfmtd Ifhrdfmmc (66)
Xdzqd Rfm`u [u`frefwfm (242933
7/22/2019 Laporan Praktikum Proses Unit Operasi Teknik I: Fluidisasi
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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@FIPFX D[D
Hfh 6. Rcm`fnujufm
Hfh 8. Pdmofufm Rustfgf Hfh ;. Fjft & Rrasc`ur Rcrkahffm
Hfh 0. @ftf Rcrndtumlfm & Lrfidg
Hfh 3. Fmfjdsf & Gcsdepujfm
@fitfr Rustfgf
7/22/2019 Laporan Praktikum Proses Unit Operasi Teknik I: Fluidisasi
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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HFH D
6.6 Rcm`fnujufm
Ijud`dsfsd f`fjfn suftu icmaecmf hcruhfnmyf sdift suftu pf`ftfm (hc`) `fjfe suftu
rcfgtar ecmof`d hcrsdift scpcrtd ijud`f `dgfrcmfgfm f`fmyf fjdr ijud`f gc `fjfemyf hfdg hcrupfjdqud` efupum lfs. Ijud`dsfsd fgfm `fpft tcrof`d fpfhdjf lfyf `araml ijud`f jchdn hcsfr `frd lfyf
hcrft umllum. [cecmtfrf dtu ijud`dsfsd edmdeue tcrof`d fpfhdjf lfyf `araml ftfu lfyf scrct
ijud`f sfef `cmlfm lfyf hcrft umllum.
Ijud`dsfsd hcrnuhumlfm `cmlfm prascs dm`ustrd gdedf yfml kugup vdtfj, edsfjmyf `fjfe
prascs gftfjdsfsd efupum `fjfe prascs pceurmdfm lfs. @fm hdfsfmyf fpjdgfsdmyf f`fjfn umtug
prascs yfml ecmllumfgfm idxc` hc`, ijud`dzc` hc` sfepfd prascs trfmspart. Rrascs ijud`dsfsd dmd
ecedjdgd hchcrfpf nfj pcmtdml yfml pftut `dpcrnftdgfm, scpcrtd ocmds `fm tdpc ijud`dsfsd `fm
fpjdgfsdmyf `fjfe dm`ustrd scrtf spcsdvdgfsd `fm kfrf gcrof fjftmyf.
Fpjdgfsd ijud`dsfsd `fjfe prascs dm`ustrd sfmlft hfmyfg `fm `deujfd pf`f tfnum 6489
umtug Lfsdidcr \dmgjcr hcrsgfjf hcsfr. @ddgutd ajcn Ijud`dzc`-hc` Kftfjytdk Krfkgdml (IKK)
kru`c adj ecmof`d hcmsdm pf`f tfnum 6408. Fpjdgfsd tcrschut scefgdm hcrgcehfml `fm pf`f
tfnum 6442 `fpft `dgjfsdidgfsdgfm ecmof`d prascs-prascs gdedf gftfjdtdg (scpcrtd IKK `fm sdmtcsds
Idskncr-Prapskn), prascs-prascs gdedf mamgftfjdtdg (scpcrtd tncrefj krfkgdml `fm lfsdidgfsd
hftuhfrf), `fm prascs-prascs idsdg (scpcrtd pcmlcrdmlfm `fm fhsarpsd). [cecmtfrf ijud`dsfsd
gamtdmyu hfmyfg `defmifftgfm umtug ecedm`fngfm pf`ftfm `frd sftu tcepft gc tcepft jfdm
`fjfe schufn pfhrdg pcmlajfnfm.
[fjfn sftu fjfsfm umllum tcrijud`dsfsd ecedjdgd fpjdgfsd yfml jufs f`fjfn gfrfgtcrdstdg
trfmsicr pfmfsmyf yfml sfmlft hfdg. Nfj dmd `d`uguml guft ajcn hcruhfnmyf sdift `frd umllum
tcrschut ecmof`d scpcrtd ijud`f scndmllf trfmsicr pfmfs yfml tcrof`d f`fjfn trfmsicr pfmfs
gamvcgsd. @cmlfm `cedgdfm pfrtdgcj yfml ecefsugd umllum tcrijud`dsfsd sclcrf ecmkfpfd
tcepcrftur umllum `fm pfrtdgcj `fjfe umllum hcrsdift dsatncrefj pf`f sceuf sdtufsd. Lfs yfml
ecefsugd umllum oulf fgfm sclcrf ecmkfpfd tcepcrftur umllum. Nfepdr td`fg f`fmyf vfrdfsd
tcepcrftur `fjfe umllum yfml tcrijud`dsfsd `dgfrcmfgfm pcmkfepurfm ecrftf `fm frcf gamtfg
yfml jufs fmtfrf lfs `fm pfrtdgcj.
Of`d gdtf schflfd efnfsdswf `cpfrtcecm tcgmdg gdedf ecrfsf pcrju umtug ecepcjfofrd
ijud`dsfsd `fm fspcg fpjdgfsdmyf `fjfe dm`ustrd. Gfrcmf pf`f prascs yfml hcrnuhumlfm `cmlfm
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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gftfjdsfsd ftfupum nfj yfml crft gfdtfmyf `cmlfm pcrjfgufm lfs-sajd`, jdqud`-sajd`, ijud`dsfsd
hcrpcrfm pcmtdml `fjfe prascs tcrschut.
6.8 Puoufm RcrkahffmRcrkahffm dmd `djfgugfm `cmlfm tuoufm shh.?
6. Ecmlfeftd pcrdjfgu pfrtdgcj umllum (hc`) yfml ecmlfjfed ijud`dsfsd.8. Ecmycjd`dgd nuhumlfm fmtfrf gctdmlldfm umllum `cmlfm jfou fjdr ftfu gckcpftfm
supcridsdfj.
;. Ecmycjd`dgd nuhumlfm fmtfrf gckcpftfm supcridsdfj `cmlfm prascs ijud`dsfsd `fmpcrpdm`fnfm pfmfs.
0. Ecmycjd`dgd nuhumlfm fmtfrf prascs pcrpdm`fnfm pfmfs `fm pasdsd ncftcr.3. Ecmycjd`dgd pcmlfrun gckcpftfm supcridsdfj tcrnf`fp tcepcrftur `d `fjfe umllum
`fm tcepcrftur `d ftfs umllum.
9. Ecmlfmfjdsf rcprcscmtfsd nuhumlfm fmtfrf hdjfmlfm Xcymaj` `fm hdjfmlfm Musscjttcrnf`fp gckcpftfm supcridsdfj `fm prascs pcrpdm`fnfm pfmfs yfml tcrof`d.
6.; Rrdmsdp Gcrof
Ecmlfjdrgfm ijud`f u`frf tcrgaeprcsd pf`f hc` `cmlfm jfou fjdr, sunu, `fm pasdsd ncftcr
yfml `dvfrdfsdgfm umtug ecjdnft pcmlfrunmyf pf`f pcrdstdwf ijud`dsfsd `fm pcrpdm`fnfm
pfmfs yfml tcrof`d.
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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HFH DDPDMOFSFM RS[PFGF
8.6 Gamscp Ijud`dsfsd
Fpfhdjf tcr`fpft suftu fjdrfm ijud`f hfdg kfdr efupum lfs yfml ecjcwftd pfrtdgcj umllum
yfml hcrf`f `fjfe suftu tfhuml, efgf fjdrfm tcrschut fgfm ecehcrdgfm suftu lfyf `araml ftfu
lfyf scrct (`rfl iarkc) pf`f pfrtdgcj, scndmllf pfrtdgcj tcrschut fgfm tcrfmlgft `fm ecmychfhgfm
nfehftfm tcrnf`fp fjdrfm u`frf scefgdm ecmlckdj scndmllf ecmdehujgfm gcndjfmlfm tcgfmfm
(prcssurc `rap) scpfmofml pfrtdgcj umllum, `defmf pcrdstdwf dmd hdfsf `dschut `cmlfm pcrdstdwf
ijud`dsfsd.
Gctdmlldfm umllum fgfm hcruhfn scdrdml `cmlfm pcruhfnfm jfou fjdr u`frf. [cefgdm
hcsffr jfou fjdr u`frf, efgf fgfm scefgdm hcsfr gctdmlldfm umllum. Rf`f jfou fjdr u`frf yfml
rcm`fn, pcruhfnfm gctdmlldfm umllum td`fg hcldtu hcrfrtd hfnfm fgfm kcm`cruml gamstfm
wfjfupum jfou fjdr u`frf hcrtfehfn.
Gamscp `fsfr `frd suftu pfrtdgcj umllum yfml tcrijud`dsfsd `fpft `ddjustrfsdgfm `cmlfm
icmaecmf yfml tcrof`d odgf f`fmyf pcruhfnfm jfou fjdr lfs scpcrtd pf`f lfehfr `d hfwfn dmd.
Lfehfr 6. Icmaecmf ijud`dsfsd `cmlfm vfrdfsd jfou fjdr lfs
7/22/2019 Laporan Praktikum Proses Unit Operasi Teknik I: Fluidisasi
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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Icmaecmf ijud`dsfsd pf`f sdstce lfs-pf`ft oulf `fpft `ddjustrfsdgfm pf`f lfehfr hcrdgut
dmd.
Icmaecmf `d ftfs `fpft `docjfsgfm ecjfjud pcrsfeffm Hcrmaujjd `cmlfm fjdrfm jfedmcr
schflfd hcrdgut, yfdtu?
;8
8
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p
s
@
xYI
`fm R lzI
Rf`f lfehfr `d ftfs tcrjdnft hfnwf pcrhc`ffm tcgfmfm scpfmofml umllum sckfrf jdmcfr
hcrhfm`dml jurus `cmlfm jfou fjdr vajuectrdg scjfef ijud`dsfsd hcjue tcrkfpfd.
Odgf pf`ftfm hcrupf pfrtdgcj scpcrtd pfsdr, gctfnfmfm pfrtdgcj tcrschut tcrnf`fp fjdrfm
ijud`f fgfm ecmurum `cmlfm ecmdmlgftmyf parasdtfs pfrtdgcj tcrschut. Rcmlugurfm R pf`f
scpfmofml umllum `fpft `dmyftfgfm `cmlfm pcrsfeffm shh.
;8
8
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p
s
@
xYR
Efgf hdjf Ys ecmdmlgft, ecmdmlgft `fm R `doflf flfr gamstfm. @fjfe nfj dmd xoulf
fgfm ecmdmlgft, fgfm tctfpd pcmlfrun `frd gcmfdgfm x dmd jchdn gckdj `dhfm`dmlgfm pcmlfrun
yfml `dtdehujgfm ajcn pcruhfnfm F`fpum nuhumlfm x, R `fm gckcpftfm fjdrfm ijud`f `fpft
`djdnft pf`f lfehfr ;.
7/22/2019 Laporan Praktikum Proses Unit Operasi Teknik I: Fluidisasi
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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Smtug gckcpftfm yfml gurfml `frd gckcpftfm ijud`dsfsd edmdeue (Sei) efgf umllum
fgfm hcrprdjfgu schflfd pfkgc` hc`. Mfeum, odgf gckcpftfm fjdrfm ijud`f `dmfdggfm ecjchdnd
Sei, efgf td`fg nfmyf umllum yfml tcrfmlgft, tctfpd pfrtdgcj fgfm hcrlcrfg `fm fgfm sfjdml
hcrhcmturfm sftu sfef jfdm `fm fgndrmyf gcscjurunfm efssf pfrtdgcj fgfm ecmof`d ijud`f.
Lfehfr ;. Prfmsdsd `frd pfkgc` hc` gc ijud`dzc` hc`
8.8. Ocmds-ocmds Ijud`dsfsd
8.8.6. Ijud`dsfsd Rfrtdgujft
F`fjfn suftu prascs ijud`dsfsd `d efmf pfrtdgcj-pfrtdgcj hcrlcrfg ecmofun sftu sfef jfdm
`fm lcrcgfmmyf hcrtfehfn nchft `cmlfm hcrtfehfnmyf gckcpftfm. Pctfpd, `cmsdtfs nfepfrfm
rftf-rftf pf`f suftu gckcpftfm tcrtcmtu f`fjfn sfef `d sclfjf frfn nfepfrfm. Kdrd `frd prascs dmd
f`fjfn f`fmyf cgspfmsd nfepfrfm yfml kugup hcsfr tctfpd scrflfe pf`f gckcpftfm yfml kugup
tdmlld. [cdrdml `cmlfm hcrtfehfnmyf gckcpftfm ijud`f `fm pcmurumfm tcgfmfm, efgf umllum
fgfm tcrcgspfmsd `fm pcrlcrfgfm pfrtdgcj scefgdm kcpft. Ofjfm hchfs rftf-rftf suftu pfrtdgcj `d
fmtfrf tuehugfm-tuehugfm `cmlfm pfrtdgcj jfdmmyf fgfm hcrtfehfn hcsfr `cmlfm ecmdmlgftmyf
gckcpftfm ijud`f. Fgdhftmyf parasdtfs umllum fgfm ecmdmlgft.
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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8.8.8. Ijud`dsfsd Flrclft/ Ijud`dsfsd Lcjcehuml
Nfepfrfm zft pf`ft yfml tcrijud`dsfsd `fjfe u`frf hdfsfmyf ecmumouggfm pcrdstdwf yfml
`dgcmfj `cmlfm iju`dsfsd flrclft ftfu lcjcehuml. Ijud`dsfsd dmd tcrof`d odgf gckcpftfm lfs `d ftfs
gckcpftfm ijud`dsfsd edmdeue. Rf`f gam`dsd dmd umllumfgfm ecmlfjfed huhhjdml `fm ramllf-ramllf scpcrtd lcjcehumlufp fgfm ecehfmlgdtgfm sdrgujfsd pfrtdgcj umllum.
@fjfe ijud`dsfsd lcjcehuml pcmlcehfmlfm vajuec nfepfrfm tcrutfef `dschfhgfm ajcn
vajuec yfml `dpfgfd ajcn lcjcehuml lfs gfrcmf ifsf rfpft pf`f ueuemyf td`fg hcrcgspfmsd
`cmlfm pcdmlgftfm fjdrfm. Fgfm tctfpd odgf gckcpftfm `dtfehfn efgf nfepfrfm fgfm
ecmlcehfml sckfrf scrflfe scndmllf fgndrmyf lcjcehuml eujfd tcrhcmtug. @fm odgf gckcpftfm
`dtdmlgftgfm jfld sfepfd ecjcwftd tdtdg lcjcehuml, nfepfrfm dtu fgfm hcrfmlsur-fmlsur
ecmlcepds gcehfjd, tctfpd fgfm ecmlcehuml jfld.
@fjfe ijud`dsfsd flrclft ijud`f fgfm ecehuft lcjcehuml pf`f pf`ftfm umllum `fjfe
tdmlgfn jfgu yfml gnusus. Lcjcehuml ijud`f fgfm ecmdmlgft ecjfjud umllum `fm pckfn pf`f
pcreugffm umllum `fm fgfm tcrof`d spjfsndml `d efmf pfrtdgcj umllum fgfm hcrlcrfg ftfs.
[cdrdml `cmlfm ecmdmlgftmyf gckcpftfm ijud`f, pcrdjfgu lcjcehuml fgfm hcrtfehfn hcsfr.
Grdtcrdf umtug ijud`dsfsd pfrtdgujft `fm flrclft `fpft `dtcmtugfm `cmlfm hdjmlfm Irau`c ?
v8/(l@p) yfml `dpfgfd umtug ecmcmtugfm fpfgfn suftu sdstce fgfm tcrijud`dsfsd pfrtdgujft ftfu
tcrijud`dsfsd flrclft.
8.8.;. Ijud`dsfsd Gamtdmu
Hdjf gckcpftfm ijud`f ecjfjud nfepfrfm zft pf`ft kugup hcsfr, efgf sceuf pfrtdgcj
`fjfe nfepfrfm dtu fgfm tcrhfwf dgut ajcn ijud`f ndmllf ecehcrdgfm suftu ijud`dsfsd gamtdmu.
Rrdmsdp ijud`dsfsd dmd tcrutfef `dtcrfpgfm `fjfe pcmlfmlgutfm zft pf`ft `frd suftu tdtdg gc tdtdg
jfdm `fjfe suftu pfhrdg pcmlajfnfm `d sfepdml f`f hchcrfpf rcfgtar lfs zft pf`ft jfef yfml
hcgcrof `cmlfm prdmsdp dmd. Kamtanmyf f`fjfn `fjfe trfmpartfsd juepur `fm trfmpartfsd
pmcueftdk.
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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8.; [dift `fm Gfrfgtcrdstdg Rfrtdgcj Smllum
f. Sgurfm pfrtdgcj
Rf`ftfm `fjfe umllum yfml tcrijud`dsfsd tfg pcrmfn sfef `fjfe ugurfm `fm
ecmlfku pf`f `dstrdhusd ugurfm pfrtdgcj tcrschut. Smtug ecmlndtuml ugurfm pfrtdgcjrftf-rftf `cmlfm ecmllumfgfm `dfectcr rftf-rftf pcreugffm (`sv).
pd
d
sv
`
x`
6
`d efmf7 `p 5 `dfectcr pfrtdgcj rftf-rftf yfml sckfrf ueue `dlumfgfm umtug `csfdm
`sv 5 `dfectcr `frd suftu hd`fml
h. @cmsdtfs pf`ftfm
Rf`ftfm `fpft `dhc`fgfm ecmof`d ; hfldfm hcr`fsfrgfm `cmsdtfsmyf yfdtu hujg,
sgcjctcj, `fm pfrtdkjc. @cmsdtfs hujg ecrupfgfm pcmlugurfm hcrft `frd gcscjurunfm
pfrtdgcj `dhfld `cmlfm vajuec pfrtdgcj. Rcmlugurfm dmd ecmycrtfgfm ifgtar
gcgasamlfm `fjfe pard-pard pfrtdgcj. [gcjctcj f`fjfn `cmsdtfs suftu pf`ftfm odgf
parasdtfsmyf maj. F`fpum `cmsdtfs pfrtdgcj f`fjfn hcrft `frd suftu pfrtdgcj `dhfld
`cmlfm vajuecmyf `cmlfm ecmycrtfgfm pard-pard. Odgf td`fg f`f mdjfd umtug `cmsdtfs
pfrtdgcj, efgf pcm`cgftfm umtug `cmsdtfs pfrtdgcj `fpft `dpcrajcn `cmlfm ecehfld
`uf `cmsdtfs hujg.k. [pncrdkdty
[pncrdkdty ecrupfgfm ifgtar hcmtug yfml `dmyftfgfm schflfd rfsda `frd frcf
pcreugffm vajuec pfrtdgcj hujft yfml sfef `cmlfm pfrtdgcj dtu `dhfld `cmlfm frcf
pcreugffm pfrtdgcj.
v
sv
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Eftcrdfj yfml ecjdmlgfr scpcrtd gftfjds `fm pfsdr hujft ecedjdgd mdjfd spncrdkdty
schcsfr 2.4 ftfu jchdn.
7/22/2019 Laporan Praktikum Proses Unit Operasi Teknik I: Fluidisasi
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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`. Gckcpftfm tcredmfj
Gckcpftfm tcredmfj suftu pfrtdgcj (St) ecrupfgfm gckcpftfm lfs yfml `dhutungfm
umtug ecmlftur pfrtdgcj tumllfj yfml tcrsuspcmsd `fjfe fjdrfm lfs. Gckcpftfm tcredmfj
suftu pfrtdgcj `dmyftfgfm `fjfe pcrsfeffm?8/6
;
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@fjfe fjdrfm jfedmcr `fm ecmldgutd Nugue [tagcs?
p
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80
lpp
S`Xc
Of`d, gckcpftfm tcredmfj umtug pfrtdgcj tumllfj hcrhcmtug hujft f`fjfn
6>
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umtug Xcp : 2.0
@fm umtug pfrtdgcj hcsfr `cmlfm K` 5 2.0;
8/6
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plp
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umtug Xcp = 322
Rcrsfeffm dmd ecmldm`dgfsdgfm hfnwf umtug pfrtdgcj yfml hcrugurfm gckdj
vdsgasdtfs ecrupfgfm ifgtar `aedmfm sctdfp lfs `fm umtug pfrtdgcj hcrugurfm hcsfr
`cmsdtfs ecrupfgfm ifgtar yfml tcrpcmtdml. Gc`uf pcrsfeffm `d ftfs ecmlfhfdgfm
lfyf fmtfr pfrtdgcj. [ckfrf ueue gckcpftfm scjdp (Sscjdp) ftfu gckcpftfm cicgtdi
tcredmfj umtug pfrtdgcj `fjfe suspcmsd (S*t) f`fjfn?
Sscjdp5 S*t5 St. i()
Gcgasamlfm i() `frd umllum yfml tcrijud`dsfsd f`fjfn irfgsd eaj yfml tcrof`d
ajcn lfs. Iumlsd t `fpft `dmyftfgfm `cmlfm pcm`cgftfm Gazcmy-Knfrefm hcrdgut.i() 5 2.6
8/(6-
Rcm`cgftfm jfdm yfml `dlumfgfm umtug sdstce hfmyfg ifsf yfdtu garcjfsd
Xdknfr`sam-_fgd umtug pfrtdgcj tumllfj `fjfe suspcmsd, yfdtu?
S/St5m
m ecrupfgfm iumlsd `frd p/@ `fm hdjfmlfm Xc yfml `dvfrdfsdgfm.
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c. Gckcpftfm Ijud`dsfsd Edmdeue (Sei)
F`fjfn gckcpftfm supcridkdfj tcrcm`fn yfml `dhutungfm umtug tcrof`dmyf
ijud`dsfsd. Sei `fpft `dtcmtugfm ecjfjud pjat _cmz `cmlfm ecmlfsuesdgfm ifgtar
gcgasamlfm pf`f ijud`dsfsd edmdeue 2.3. [cjfdm dtu, Sei oulf `fpft `dkfrd `cmlfmecmllumfgfm pcrsfeffm
Sei 5 W(66;3.Fr)2.3
-;;.
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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n. @fcrfn hftfs ijud`dsfsd (ijud`dzftdam rcldecs)
Rf`f gckcpftfm lfs rcm`fn, suftu pf`ftfm `fjfe tfhuml umllum fgfm hcrf`f pf`f
gam`dsd gamstfm scdrdml `cmlfm hcrtfehfnmyf gckcpftfm lfs, lfyf scrct, `fm lfyf
huayfmt ecmlfjfngfm hcrft pfrtdgcj scrtf lfyf fmtfr pfrtdgcj tcrschut. Rf`f ijud`dsfsdedmdeue pfrtdgcj ecepcrjdnftgfm pcrlcrfgfm yfml edmdefj `fm sckfrf jfmlsuml umllum
fgfm sc`dgdt tcrfmlgft.
d. Rcmurumfm tcgfmfm
Rcmurumfm tcgfmfm yfml tcrof`d pf`f kfepurfm `uf ifsf `dmyftfgfm `fjfe
hcrflfe hcmtug, scpcrtd stftdk ncf`, fgscjcrfsd `fm gcndjfmlfm irdgsd umtug lfs `fm
pf`ftfm. Smtug fpjdgfsd ijud`dsfsd umllum `d jufr gam`dsd gctdgf fgscjcrfsd pcmurumfm
tcgfmfm `fpft `dtcrdef, pcmurumfm tcgfmfm fgfm `dnfsdjgfm `frd stftdk ncf` pf`ftfm.
Smtug dtu, hcrft suftu pfrtdgcj umllum odgf `dhfld `cmlfm tdmlld pf`ftfm fgfm
ecmlnfsdjgfm `cmsdtfs scsumllunmyf `frd umllum yfml tcrijud`dsfsd. Iareujfmyf
`drueusgfm schflfd hcrdgut ?
RJp llk
8.0 Rcrdjfgu Lcjcehuml pf`f Gctdmlldfm umllum
f. Rcrdjfgu Lcjcehuml
Lcjcehuml yfml jchdn hcsfr kcm`cruml mfdg jchdn kcpft `dhfm`dml lcjcehuml
yfml gckdj scndmllf fmtfr lcjcehuml fgfm tcrof`d tuehugfm `fm hcrlfhuml (kafjcskcmkc)
`fm lcjcehuml scefgdm hcrtfehfn hcsfr. @dm`dml tfhuml oulf ecepcmlfrund lcrcgfm
lcjcehuml scndmllf lcjcehuml kcm`cruml hcrlcrfg gc frfn `fjfe umllum.
Lcjcehuml tcrof`d `fjfe gchfmyfgfm umllum yfml tcrijud`dsfsd `fm pcrfmfmmyf
sfmlft pcmtdml gfrcmf fgdhft jfou `frd pcruhfnfm efssf ftfu cmcrld `d fmtfrf lfs `fm
pf`ftfm `fjfe umllum. Lcjcehuml tcrhcmtug `fjfe umllum yfml tcrijud`dsfsd `frd
gctd`fgstfhdjfm sdstce 8 ifsf. Rcmlamtrajfm ugurfm lcjcehuml `fpft `dpcrajcn `cmlfmecmlamtraj `dstrdhusd ugurfm pfrtdgcj ftfu `cmlfm ecmdmlgftgfm gckcpftfm lfs.
Ecmlfku pf`f tcard lcjcehuml `uf ifsf `fm ijud`dsfsd, sceuf lfs yfml
`dhutungfm umtug ijud`dsfsd edmdeue ecjcwftd umllum `fjfe prascs pcehcmtugfm
lcjcehuml. Lcjcehuml ecmdmlgft ecjfjud umllum `fjfe 8 gam`dsd yfml hcrhc`f.
Lcjcehuml yfml ecmdmlgft sckfrf pf`ft `fpft tcrof`d pf`f gckcpftfm lfs gurfml `frd
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Sei `fm nfj dmd ecehcrdgfm gcscepftfm umtug lfs ecjcwftd pfrtdgcj umllum `fm sdrgudt
pcm`cg ecjfjud lcjcehuml ecmuou gc pcreugffm umllum.
Gckcpftfm suftu lcjcehuml yfml hcrtfehfn hcsfr ecjfjud ijud`f umllum
`dmyftfgfm `fjfe rueus?Snr5 2.
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`fjfe sdstce rcfgsd gdedf. Gfrcmf pcrtdgcj-pfrtdgcj sfjdml hcr`cgftfm `frd lfs yfml
ecmlcjdjdmld pfrtdgjc tcrschut, efgf gacidsdcm pcrpdm`fnfm efssf scjfju jchdn gckdj `frd
suftu pcrtdgcj tumllfj yfml hcrlcrfg `fjfe u`frf hchfs.
8.< [dift-sdift Rcrpdm`fnfm Rfmfs Smllum Pcrijud`dsfsdSmllum yfml tcrijud`dsfsd ajcn lcjcehuml-lcjcehuml tcrkfepur `cmlfm sfmtlft
hfdg gfrcmf pcrtdgcj-pfrtdgcj umllum tcrsdrgujfsd ajcn lcjehuml u`frf yfml mfdg.
Fgdhftmyf sunu umllu sfmlft scrflfe, wfjfupum tcr`fpft rcfgsd yfml sfmlft cgsatcre.
Odgf jufs pcreugffm trfmicr pfmfs fmtfrf lfs `fm umllum kugup tdmlld scndmllf lfs `fm
pcrtdgcj kcpft ecmkfpfd sunu yfml sfef. Jfou trfmsicr pfmfs yfml tdmlld eulf `fpft
`dpcrajcn fmtfrf pcreugffm pfmfs yfml tcrkcjup `d `fjfe umllum `cmlfm umllummyf dtu
scm`drd. Pdlf ecgfmdsec yfml ecmyuehfmlgfm trfmsicr pfmfs fmtfrf umllum tcrijud`dsfsd
`fm pcreugffm f`fjfn ?
f. Smtug pfrtdgcj umllum `cmlfm `dfectcr : 322 `fm `cmsdtfs : 0222 gl/e; (gckufjd
pfcrtdgcj nfjus yfml sfmlft gancsdi), ecgfmdsec utfef f`fjfn f`fmyf sdrgujfsd
fmtfrf hujgumllum `fm pfrtdgcj yfml hcr`cgftfm `cmlnfm pcreugffm pfmfs (Rfrtdkjc
Kamvcktdvc Ecknfmdse).
Rfrtdgcj efepu ecmtrfmsicr hfmyfg pfmfs gfrcmf ecepumyfd gfpfsdtfs pfmfs pf`f
sfft fwfj pfrtdgcj hcr`cgftfm `cmlfm pcreugffm pfmfs, tcr`fpft lrf`dcm sunu jagfj
yfml hcsfr yfdtu f`fmyf pcrhc`ffm sunu yfml hcsfr fmtfrf hujg umllum `cmlfm
pcreugffm scndmllf jfou pcrpdm`fnfm pfmfs sfmlft hcsfr. Pfpd, scefgdm jfef sunu
umllum scefgdm ecm`cgftd sunu pcreugffm. Of`d umtug scjfml wfgtu tcrtcmtu jfou
trfmsicr pfmfs scefgdm tdmlld odgf pcrtdgcj hcrsdmllumlfm `cmlfm pcreudgffm pfmfs
`fjfe rckd`cmt tdec yfml sdmlgft yfml `fpft `dpcrajcn `cmlfm ecmlftur gam`dsd
apcrfsd. Pctfpd nfrus `ddmlft hfnwf rckd`cmt tdec yfml cgstrde gckdj umtug
ececrajcn gacidsdcm pcrpdm`fnfm pfmfs yfml pfjdml tdmlld `dhftfsd ajcn
gam`ugtdvdtfs pfmfs lfs `fm ofrfg ofjur trfmsicr pfmfs tcrpcm`cg `d efmf pfmfs
ecmlfjdr sckfrf gam`ugsd fmtfrf pfrtdgcj umllum `fm pcreugffm pfmfs.
h. Smtug umllum `fjfe ugurfm ftfu `cmsdtfs yfml jchdn hcsfr, gckcpftfm dmtcrstdsdfj
f`fjfn turhujcm yfml hcrfrtd hfnwf trfmsicr pfmfs gamvcgsd ecjfjud lfs ecmof`d
pcmtdml. Odgf trfmsicr pfmfs ea`c dmd ecmof`d `aedmfm efgf trfmsicr pfmfs fgfm
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mfdg `cmlfm mfdgmyf `dfectcr pfrtdgcj (gfrcmf efgdm hcsfr pfrtdgcj efgf efgdm
hcsfr turhujcmsd gckcpftfm dmtcrstdsdfj).
k. Smtug sunu yfml jchdn tdmlld fgfm tcr`fpft pcrhc`ffm sunu yfml sfmlft hcsfr fmtfrf
umllum `fm pcreugffm pfmfs scndmllf trfmsicr pfmfs sckfrf rf`dfsd ecmof`d pcmtdml.Rcrpdm`fnfm gfjar gc pcreugffm `fjfe sdstce pf`ft-lfs gacidsdcm pcrpdm`fnfm
pfmfs gc pcreugffmmyf sfmlft tcrlfmtuml pf`f gufjdtfs ijud`dsfsd yfml tcrof`d
(Kaujsam, 649>?863). Smtug ecmlndtuml gacidsdcm pcrpdm`fnfm pfmfs tcrschut `fpft
`dlumfgfm pcrsfeffm @aw `fm Ofkah hcrdgut.
@d efmf? n 5 gacidsdcm pcrpdm`fnfm pfmfs
g 5 gam`ugtdvdtfs tcrefj lfs
@ 5 `dfectcr pfrtdgcj
@t 5 `dfectcr tuhc
J 5 pfmofml umllum
5 gcgasamlfm umllum
s `cmsdtfs pf`ftfm
`cmsdtfs lfs
Ks 5 gfpfsdtfs pfmfs pf`ftfm
Kp 5 gfpfsdtfs pfmfs lfs pf`f tcgfmfm gamstfm
vdsgasdtfs lfs
Sk5 gckcpftfm supcridkdfj `fjfe tuhc gasaml
tk
p
ssttt `S
Kc
Kc
`
`
J
`
g
n`83,26
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HFH DDD
FJFP&RXA[C@SX RCXKAHFFM
;.6 Gaepamcm Fjft Rf`f Rcrkahffm Ijud`dsfsd
Hc` KnfehcrRf`f pcrkahffm ijud`dsfsd dmd, pfrtdgcj umllum (hc`) yfml `dlumfgfm f`fjfn fjuedmf yfml
`djctfggfm `d `fjfe tfhuml vcrtdgfj yfml tcrhuft `frd gfkf `cmlfm ugurfm `dfectcr 623
ee `fm tdmlld 882 ee. Pfhuml tcrschut oulf `djcmlgfpd `cmlfm fjft scefkfe edstfr
yfml tcrjctfg pf`f hfldfm `dm`dmlmyf yfml hcriumlsd umtug ecmlugur gctdmlldfm hc`
pf`f sfft tcrof`d ijud`dsfsd. Rf`f hfldfm hfwfn tfhuml tcrschut, tcr`fpft rufml `dstrdhusd
(`dstrdhutdam knfehcr) `fm pcmyupjfd u`frf (fdr `dstrdhutar) yfml hcriumlsd umtug
ecmfnfmpfrtdgcj umllum pf`f sfft td`fg tcrof`d ijud`dsfsd. Hfldfm dmd su`fn `drfmkfml
sc`cedgdfm rupf scndmllf u`frf yfml ecmlfjdr ecjcwftd hc`fgfm sfef `d sctdfp tcepft
tfmpf ecmychfhgfm pcmurumfm tcgfmfm hcrjchdnfm. [c`fmlgfm hfldfm ftfs tfhuml tcr`drd
ftfs pcmyfrdml u`frf, scndmllf hc` td`fg fgfm tcrhfwf gcjufr ajcn u`frf gctdgf tcrof`d
ijud`dsfsd.
Kyjd m`cr eaumtdmlHfldfm dmd tcr`drd `frd cjcecm pcefmfs (ncftcr), tcreagapcj, `fm pcmlugur tcgfmfm.
Gctdlf fjft tcrschut `fpft `dlcrfgfm sckfrf vcrtdgfj umtug `dscsufdgfm `cmlfm gctdmlldfm
hc``d `fjfe hc` knfehcr.
NcftcrNcftcr yfml `dpcrlumfgfm pf`f pcrkahffm dmd hcrhcmtug sdjdm`cr `cmlfm jufs pcreugffm
scgdtfr 69 ke8.
Yfrd fhjc trfmsiarecrYfrdfhcj trfmsiarecr ecrupfgfm fjft umtug ecmlamtraj jfou pcrpdm`fnfm pfmfs `frd
ncftcr. Yajtfsc `fm oulf guft frus `frd ncftcr tcrschut gceu`dfm fgfm `dtfepdjgfm pf`f
pfmcj `dspjfy. Rf`f pcregffm ncftcr, tcr`fpft `uf hufn tcreagapcj yfml hcriumlsd umtug
ecmlugur tcepcrftur pcreugffm ncftcr `fm yfml sftumyf jfld hcriumlsd umtug ecjdm`umld
`frd mdjfd scttdml yfml hcrjchdn. Pcepcrftur `frd pcreugffm ncftcr, hc`, scrtf u`frf efsug
yfml ecmlfjdr fgfm `dtfepdjgfm pf`f pfmcj `dspjfy jfdmmyf. Rf`f hfldfm jfdm tcr`fpft `uf
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hufn efmaectcr yfml hcrdsd ijud`f umtug ecmlugur pcmurumfm tcgfmfm u`frf yfml
ecmlfjdr schcjue `fm scsu`fn ecjcwftd hc` knfehcr.
Hc`Rfrtdgcj umllum (hc`) yfml `dlumfgfm `fjfe pcrkahffm dmd f`fjfn fjuedmf `cmlfm `ftf-`ftf schflfd hcrdgut ?
Rf`f `fsfrmyf, ocmds hc` yfml `dlumfgfm `fpft `dlfmtd-lfmtd scsufd `cmlfm gchutunfm.
Mfeum, gfrcmf gctcrhftfsfm ( edsfjmyf nfrus ecjcpfs hchcrfpf gaepamcm fjft), efgf
`fjfe pcrkahffm dmd vfrdfsd hc`td`fg `djfgugfm.
Lfehfr 0. Ijud`dzftdam fm` Ncft Prfmsicr Smdt Apcrftdam
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;.8. Rrasc`ur Rcrkahffm
;.8.6.Rcrkahffm 6
@ckrcfsdml ijaw rftc
6. Ecmlftur jfou fjdr u`frf (V 5 6.< J/s) `cmlfm ecmlftur gmap fjdrfm u`frf.8. Ecmkftft gctdmlldfm hc` (Nh) yfml tcrijud`dsfsd.;. Ecmkftft tcgfmfm `cmlfm ecehfkf efmaectcr.0. Ecjfgugfm jfmlgfn-jfmlgfn `d ftfs umtug vfrdfsd jfou fjdr u`frf 6.9 J/s 7 6.0 J/s 7 6.8 J/s 7
6.2 J/s 7 2.> J/s 7 2. 9 J/s 7 2.0J/s7 `fm 2. 8 J/s.
Dmkrcfsdml ijaw rftc
6. Ecmlftur jfou fjdr u`frf (V 5 2.8 J/s) `cmlfm ecmlftur gmap fjdrfm u`frf.
8. Ecmkftft gctdmlldfm hc` (Nh) yfml tcrijud`dsfsd.
;. Ecmkftft tcgfmfm cmlfm ecehfkf efmaectcr.0. Ecjfgugfm jfmlgfn-jfmlgfn `d ftfs umtug vfrdfsd jfou fjdr u`frf 2.0 J/s 7 2.9 J/s 7 2.> J/s 7
6.2 J/s 7 6.8 J/s 7 6. 0 J/s 7 6.9 J/s7 `fm 6. < J/s.
;.8.8. Rcrkahffm 8
6. Ecmsct sunu ncftcr (P6) pf`f sunu
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HFH DY
@FPF RCXNDPSMLFM & LXFIDG
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HFH Y
FMFJD[F & GC[DERSJFM
3.6. Fmfjdsf RcrkahffmRf`f pcrkahffm dmd, gfed ecmllumfgfm Fj8A; schflfd hc` (pfrtdgcj umllum) `fm u`frf
schflfd ijud`fmyf. Rf`f gcf`ffm `dfe (td`fg `dfjdrd u`frf), pfrtdgcj hc` `dfe, rfpft `fm ecedjdgd
lfyf tfrdg yfml hcsfr fmtfr pfrtdgcjmyf. [fft pfrtdgcj hc` tcrschut `dfjdrd u`frf, pfrtdgcj hc`
tcrschut hcrlcrfg ecehcmtug lcjaehfml scpcrtd umllum. Fjdrfm u`frf tcrschut ecmdehujgfm
lfyf scrct (`rfl iarkc) yfml hcsfr fmtfrf pfrtdgcj hc` scndmllf lfyf fmtfr pfrtdgcj tcrschut
ecmlndjfml `fm ecmychfhgfm pfrtdgcj hc` hcrlcrfg-lcrfg.
Rf`f suftu ijud`f, hdfsfmyf odgf `dfjdrd u`frf efgf fgfm ecehcmtug lcjcehuml-lcjcehuml
u`frf yfml tcrschfr ecrftf pf`f iud`f tcrschut. Fgfm tctfpd, gctdgf pfrtdgcj hc` (umllum) `dfjdrd
u`frf, lcjcehuml nfmyf tcrof`d pf`f hfldfm ftfs umllum. Nfj dmd tcrof`d gfrcmf pfrtdgcj hc`
ecedjdgd ugurfm yfml hcrhc`f-hc`f, `defmf pfrtdgcj `cmlfm ugurfm yfml jchdn gckdj ecedjdgd
gckcm`crumlfm umtug tcrscrct ajcn fjdrfm u`frf `fm ecehcmtug lcjcehuml. [cefgdm hcsfr fjdrfm
u`frf efgf lcjcehuml yfml tcrhcmtug fgfm scefgdm hcsfr gfrcmf scefgdm hfmyfg u`frf yfml
ecmycrct pfrtdgcj hc` umtug ecehcmtug lcjcehuml. @frd tcrhcmtugmyf lcjcehuml yfml td`fg
ecrftf `d sctdfp hfldfm ijud`f, efgf `fpft `dgftfgfm hfnwf ijud`dsfsd yfml tcrof`d td`fg
scepurmf. Rf`f pckahffm dmd gdtf ecjfgugfm `uf pcrkahffm umtug `fpft ecmcrfmlgfm ecmlcmfd
icmaecmf ijud`dsfsd yfml f`f.
Rcrkahffm 6Rckahffm 6 dmd `djfgugfm umtug ececmund tuoufm pcrkahffm, yfdtu ecmlfeftd pcrdjfgu
umllum `cmlfm u`frf ecmlfjdr gc ftfs `fm ecmlctfnud nuhumlfm fmtfrf gctdmlldfm hc` `cmlfm
prcssurc `rap`fm nuhumlfm fmtfrf gckcpftfm supcridsdfj `cmlfm prcssurc `rap. Rf`f pcrkahffm
dmd yfml `dugur dfjfn gctdmlldfm hc` `fmprcssurc `rap(R6`fm R8) `fjfe hcrhflfd jfou fjdr u`frf
yfml hcsfrmyf hcrhc`f-hc`f. Gctdmlldfm hc` yfml `dugur dfjfn gctdmlldfm hc` rftf-rftf `fjfe
hc` knfehcr. Nfj dmd `dgfrcmfgfm gctdmlldfm hc` pf`f sctdfp tdtdg (gctdgf umllum su`fn
tcrijud`dsfsd) pf`f hc` knfehcr td`fg scjfju sfef. @cmlfm `cedgdfm, gctdmlldfm hc` yfml `dugur
dfjfn gctdmlldfm hc` rftf-rftf `fjfe hc` knfehcr. Rf`f pcrkahffm 6 dmd td`fg `dpcrjugfm ncftcr
gfrcmf nfmyf dmldm eclctfnud pcrdjfgu ijud`f sfft `dfjdrgfm u`frf.
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Rcrtfef-tfef, kaeprcssar `dmyfjfgfm `fm `d`dfegfm hchcrfpf sfft. Kaeprcssar
hcriumlsd schflfd fjft yfml ecmlfjdrgfm u`frf gc pcrfjftfm pcrkahffm. Kaeprcssar sctcjfn
`dmyfjfgfm td`fg hajcn jfmlsuml `dlumfgfm ftfu ecjfgugfm pcrkahffm (nfrus `d`dfegfm
hchcrfpf sfft) gfrcmf `dhutungfm wfgtu ajcn kaeprcssar sfepfd gcf`ffmmyf stfhdj `fjfeeceaepfgfm u`frf (jfou fjdrmyf stfhdj) ftfu `fpft `dgftfgfm schflfd wfgtu pcefmfsfm. [ctcjfn
`d`dfegfm hchcrfpf sfft (sfepfd humyd yfml `dgcjufrgfm kaeprcssar jchdn nfjus `dhfm`dmlgfm
`cmlfm sfft pcrtfef gfjd `dmyfjfgfm), pcrkahffm `fpft `deujfd.
Puoufm `frd pcrkahffm 6 dmd dfjfn ecmlctfnud pcrdjfgu umllum gctdgf `dfjdrgfm u`frf `frd
hfwfn, efgf hcsfr jfou fdr u`frf yfml `dfjdrgfm gc umllum nfrus hcrhc`f-hc`f scndmllf
mfmtdmyf pcruhfnfm pcrdjfgu umllum `fpft tcrjdnft. Gckcpftfm u`frf yfml tcrugur dfjfn
gckcpftfm supcridsdfj (gckcpftfm u`frf sfft tfhuml gasaml). Nfj dmd `dgfrcmfgfm gckcpftfm u`frf
`dugur sfft u`frf hcjue ecmlfjdr pf`f tfhuml yfml tcr`fpft umllum (pf`f tfhuml gasaml)
scndmllf `fpft `dschut gckcpftfm supcridsdfj. [ftufm ugur umtug gckcpftfm u`frf yfml tcr`fpft
pf`f fjft dfjfn J/s. Rf`f pcrkahffm dmd, pcrtfef-tfef ecmlfjdrgfm u`frf `cmlfm gckcpftfm
efgsdeue (6,< J/s) tcrjchdn `fnuju gceu`dfm `dkftft nfsdj prcssurc `rap (R6 `fm R8) `fm
gctdmlldfm hc`. [ctcjfn dtu, pcelugurfm scjfmoutmyf `djfgugfm `cmlfm gckcpftfm u`frf yfml
efgdm gckdj (6,0 J/s7 6,8 J/s7 6 J/s7 2,> J/s7 2,9 J/s7 2,0 J/s7 2,8 J/s, 2). Rcmlfeftfm `djfgugfm
eujfd `frd gckcpftfm supcridsdfj efgsdeue gceu`dfm `dturumgfm `cmlfm tuoufm flfr pfrtdgcj
yfml tf`dmyf rfpft `fm ecedjdgd lfyf gancsd pfrtdgcj yfml hcsfr `fpft sfjdml hcrpdsfn gfrcmf
jfou fjdr yfml hcsfr fgfm ecehcrdgfm lfyf scrct yfml hcsfr scndmllf lfyf gancsd pfrtdgcj
tcrschut `fpft `dndjfmlgfm. [cjfdm dtu, gckcpftfm yfml `dlumfgfm `deujfd `frd gckcpftfm
efgsdeue gfrcmf gctdgf `dhcrdgfm gckcpftfm efgsdeue, efgf `fpft `dpfstdgfm hfnwf hc`
tcrijud`dsfsd. @cmlfm `cedgdfm, gctdgf su`fn td`fg tcrof`d ijud`dsfsd jfld (gckcpftfm u`frf yfml
`dhcrdgfm jchdn gckdj `frdpf`f gckcpftfm edmdeue ijud`dsfsd, Sei), gctdmlldfm hc` sfft dtu
ecrupfgfm gctdmlldfm fwfj hc` (f`f u`frf yfml tcrpcrfmlgfp `d fmtfrf hc`).
Rf`f gckcpftfm supcridsdfj efgsdeue, pfrtdgcj umllum tcrijud`dsfsd, gceu`dfm `dugur
prcssurc `rap`fm gctdmlldfm hc`-myf. Mfeum, pf`f gckcpftfm supcridsdfj rcm`fn, umllum nfmyf
`dfe (td`fg tcrijud`dsfsd). Nfj dmd `dschfhgfm gfrcmf lfyf `araml u`frf ofun jchdn gckdj `frdpf`f
lfyf hcrft pfrtdgcj umllum. Odgf gckcpftfm supcridsdfj `dmfdggfm, efgf pf`f suftu sfft lfyf scrct
ijud`f ecmychfhgfm umllum ecmlcehfml `fm ecmychfhgfm tfnfmfm tcrnf`fp fjdrfm u`frf
ecmlckdj, sfepfd fgndrmyf lfyf scrct tcrschut kugup umtug ecm`uguml lfyf hcrft pfrtdgcj
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umllum. Rf`f sfft dmd tcrof`d gcscdehfmlfm fmtfrf lfyf `araml u`frf `cmlfm hcrft cicgtdi
pfrtdgcj pfrtdgcj umllum. Rf`f gcf`ffm dmd pfrtdgcjpfrtdgcj umllum tcpft fgfm hcrlcrfg `fm
gckcpftfm fjdrfm u`frfmyf `dschut gckcpftfm edmdeue ijud`dsfsd (Sei). Odgf gckcpftfm lfs `d
ftfs Sei, umllum fgfm eujfd ecehcmtug lcjcehuml lfs (huhhjdml). Gam`dsd dmd `dschutfllrclftdvc ijud`dzftdam `fm ramllframllf scpcrtd lcjcehuml ufp fgfm ecehfmlgdtgfm
sdrgujfsd umllum. Nfj dmd `dschfhgfm ajcn f`fmyf pcrlcrfgfm pfrtdgcjpfrtdgcj umllum gfrcmf
lfyf `araml u`frf scgfrfml `fpft ecjfepfud hcsfrmyf hcrft pfrtdgcj umllum. @cmlfm
`dgctfnudmyf pcrdjfgu umllum umtug sctdfp gckcpftfm u`frf yfml `dhcrdgfm, efgf `frd pcrkahffm
dmd, `fpft `dgctfnud hcrfpf gckcpftfm edmdeue supfyf tcrof`d ijud`dsfsd.
Rcrkahffm 8[csufd `cmlfm tuoufm pcrkahffm, pf`f pcrkahffm 8 dmd hcrtuoufm umtug ecmlctfnud
pcmlfrun gckcpftfm supcridsdfj `fm pasdsd ncftcr pf`f gacidsdcm trfmsicr pfmfs. Ajcn gfrcmf dtu,
pf`f pcrkahffm dmd, `ftf yfml `dfehdj dfjfn gctdmlldfm hc`, sunu ncftcr, sunu u`frf, sunu
umllum, `fm prcssurc `rap pf`f gam`dsd ncftcr tcrkcjup ftfu td`fg tcrkcjup `fm tncreakaupjc
tcrkcjup/td`fg tcrkcjup. [fef nfjmyf `cmlfm pcrkahffm 6, pf`f pcrkahffm 8 dmd gctdmlldfm hc`
yfml `dugur dfjfn gctdmlldfm hc` rftf-rftf pf`f hc` knfehcr yfml `dgfrcmfgfm gctdmlldfm hc`
pf`f tdfp tdtdg `fjfe hc` knfehcr td`fg scjfju sfef, gnususmyf gctdgf tcrof`d ijud`dfsd.
Ncftcr efupum tncreakaupjc tcrkcjup efgsu`myf dfjfn ncftcr ftfu tncreakaupjc tcrkcjup
`fjfe umllum, sc`fmlgfm td`fg tcrkcjup efgsu`myf dfjfn ncftcr efupum tncreakaupjc td`fg
tcrkcjup `fjfe umllum (hcrf`f `d ftfs umllum). Rcmlugurfm sunu `cmlfm tncreakaupjc tcrkcjup
ftfu td`fg tcrkcjup `djfgugfm umtug ecmlctfnud pcmychfrfm trfmsicr pfmfs yfml tcrof`d ecrftf
ftfu td`fg, sc`fmlgfm pcmlfeftfm `cmlfm ncftcr yfml tcrkcjup `fm td`fg tcrkcjup `djfgugfm
umtug ecmlctfnud pcrhc`ffm trfmsicr pfmfs pf`f gc`uf gam`dsd `d ftfs.
[cjfdm dtu, pf`f pcrkahffm dmd, sunu ncftcr yfml `dhcrdgfm oulf `dvfrdfsd, yfdtu pf`f sunu
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
6
`fm td`fg cicgtdi `fjfe nfj wfgtu. Ajcn gfrcmf dtu, pcrkahffm pcrtfef yfml `djfgugfm dfjfn pf`f
sunu tcrcm`fn, yfdtu
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
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Lrfidg nuhumlfm fmtfrf V vs nh
Lrfidg nuhumlfm fmtfrf V vs n
Smtug `fpft ecjdnft pcrhc`ffm pcrdjfgu umllum pf`f pcrhc`ffm gckcpftfm efgf gdtf
`fpft ecepjat lrfidg nuhumlfm fmtfrf Rrcssurc `rap `fm Jfou Fjdr, `fm Gctdmlldfm Hc` `fm
Jfou Fjdr.
Rf`f lrfidg pcrtfef pf`f nuhumlfm fmtfrf Gctdmlldfm hc` vs Jfou Fjdr `fpft `djdnft hfnwf
pf`f sfft schcjue ecmkfpfd gckcpftfm uei, efgf mdjfd `frd gctdmlldfm hc` fgfm scefgdm mfdg,
nfj dmd `dschfhgfm gfrcmf gcmfdgfm jfou fjdr ijud`f ecehuft pfrtdgcj `frd hc` ecmof`d tcrpdsfn
`fm tfnfmfm `frd pfrtdgcj umtug ecjfwfm jfou fjdr ijud`f of`d scefgdm gckdj scndmllf scefgdm
2.23
2.238
2.230
2.239
2.23>
2.29
2.298
2.290
2.299
2.29>
6.< 6.9 6.0 6.8 6 2.> 2.9 2.0 2.8
nh(e)
V (e;/s)
dmkrcfsc
`ckrcfsc
2
2.228
2.220
2.229
2.22>
2.26
2.268
2.260
2.8 2.0 2.9 2.> 6 6.8 6.0 6.9 6.
tdmlld umllum hcjue hcruhfn gfrcmf hcjue tcrof`d ijud`sfsd pf`f sfft jfou fjdr tcrschut.
Gckcpftfm supcridkdfj tcrcm`fn sfft jfou fjdrmyf 6,2 e;/s yfdtu sfft umllum eujfd tcrijud`dsfsd.
@frd lrfidg tcr`fpft pcrhc`ffm mdjfd sfft pcrkahffm dmkrcfsc `fm `ckrcfsc `d jfgugfm, yfdtu sfftjfou fjdr 6,0 e
;/s nfj dmd gfrcmf gckcpftfm jfou fjdr `d pcmlfrund ajcn gaeprcsar `fm ofjfm
gaeprcsar td`fg stfhdj suftu sfft fgfm f`f pcmurumfm jfou tctfpd td`fg tcrjfju sdlmdidgfm.
Rf`f lrfidg gc`uf pf`f nuhumlfm fmtfrf Rrcssurc @rap vs Jfou Fjdr `fpft `djdnft hfnwf
pf`f sfft schcjue ecmkfpfd gckcpftfm uei, efgf mdjfd `frd prcssurc `rap fgfm scefgdm mfdg,
nfj dmd `dschfhgfm gfrcmf umllum `fjfe hc` hcjue tcrijud`dsfsd scndmllf nfehftfm jfou fjdr
u`frf fgfm scefgdm hcsfr ecjcwftd umllum `fm ecmychfhgfm Rrcssurc `rap yfml fgfm scefgdm
hcsfr. [fft gckcpftfm fgndr scgdtfr 6,0 6,< e;/s `d`fpftgfm prcssurc `rap yfml stfhdj, nfj dmd
`dgfrcmfgfm pfrtdgcj `frd hc` su`fn tcrijud`dsfsd efgsdefj ftfu su`fn tcrpdsfn sftu `cmlfm yfml
jfdmmyf scndmllf tfnfmfm pfrtdgcj umtug ecmfnfm jfou ijud`f ecmof`d 2 `fm hdsf `dgftfgfm su`fn
td`fg f`f jfld tfnfmfm scndmllf prcssurc `rapmyf stfhdj.
Rcrkahffm 8f. Nuhumlfm fmtfrf V `fm prcssurc rap
Puoufm?
Smtug ecmcmtugfm nuhumlfm fmtfrf Jfou Fjdr `cmlfmprcssurc `rap
Lrfidg nuhumlfm fmtfrf V vs R
2
2.23
2.6
2.63
2.8
2.83
2.9 2.< 2.> 2.4 6 6.6 6.8 6.; 6.0 6.3
R(M/e8)
V (e;/s)
"""B
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
6
Lrfidg `d ftfs ecmllfehfrgfm nuhumlfm fmtfrf nuhumlfm jfou fjdr (V) `cmlfm Rcruhfnfm
tcgfmfm ( R) scpfmofml umllum. @fjfe lrfidg `dtumouggfm hfnwf sfepfd mdjfd jfou fjdr scgdtfr 6
e;/s, `fm sctcjfn ecjcwftd jfou fjdr 6 e
;/s R kcm`cruml turum. Nfj dmd `dgfrcmfgfm f`fmyf
gctd`fg rfpftfm fmtfr sfehumlfm pdpf umllum `cmlfm pdpf yfml ecmlfjdrgfm ijud`f scndmllftcrof`d sc`dgdt gchakarfm scndmllf tcrof`d pcmurumfm tcgfmfm yfml kugup sdlmdidgfm. Odgf
ecmurut tcard scefgdm kcpft jfou fjdr efgf scefgdm hcsfr pujf mdjfd `frd pcrhc`ffm tcgfmfm yfml
tcrof`d. Pctfpd gfrcmf f`f suftu gcm`fjf, efgf nfsdj td`fg scsufd `cmlfm tcard.
h. Nuhumlfm fmtfrf Y vs nh
Puoufm?
Ecmctugfm nuhumlfm fmtfrf gckpftfm jfou fjdr tcrnf`fp gctdmlldfm umllum.
Nuhumlfm fmtfrf v vs Nh
Lrfidg `d ftfs ecmllfehfrgfm nuhumlfm fmtfrf nuhumlfm jfou fjdr (v) `cmlfm gctdmlldfm
umllum (nh). @fjfe lrfidg ecmumougfm hfnwf scefgdm kcpft jfou fjdr efgf scefgdm tdmlld pujf
gctdmlldfm umllum (nh) yfml `d`fpft, nfj dmd `dgfrcmfgfm pfrtdgcj yfml f`f `d `fjfe umllum
fgfm scefgdm tcrpdsfn odgf gckcpftfm jfou fjdrmyf scefgdm ecmdmlgft. Rcedsfnfm pfrtdgct sftu
`cmlfm yfml jfdmmyf `dgfrcmfgfm tfnfmfm pfrtdgcj fgfm scefgdm ndjfml odgf jfou fjdr yfml `d
fjdrgfm scefgdm gcmkfml. Rf`f lrfidg `d`fpftgfm nfsdj yfml td`fg scrflfe, nfj dmd `dgfrcmfgfm
sunu td`fg ecrftf pf`f sfft pcrkahffm, gfrcmf ncftcr `dlumfgfm `d`fjfe umllum of`d
pcrhdm`fnfm pfmfsmyf gurfml ecrftf `fm oulf wfgtu yfml `dlumfgfm `fjfe pcrkahffm sfmlft
kcpft.
2.233
2.239
2.23
2.234
2.29
2.296
2.298
2.29;
2.290
2.293
2.682;203 2.682;23 2.682;233 2.682;29 2.682;293 2.682;222
6222
6822
6022
6922
6>22
2 822222 022222 922222 >22222 6222222 6822222 6022222 6922222
Mu
Xc
tk`S
g
n`t
tkt `S
g
n`
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Ijud`dsfsd 826;
6
`. Fmfjdsds Rcmlfrun Ijud`dsfsd tcrnf`fp Prfmsicr Rfmfs
Nuhumlfm n tcrnf`fp v sfft ncftcr `d kcjup gc `fjfe hc`
Nuhumlfm n tcrnf`fp v sfft ncftcr `d td`fg `d kcjup gc `fjfe hc`
Lrfidg `dftfs ecmyftfgfm pcmlfrun gckcpftfm u`frf tcrnf`fp gacidsdcm trfmsicr pfmfs
(hugfm pcmlfrun gacidsdcm n tcrnf`fp v, gfrcmf umtug mdjfd n yfml sfef, jfou fjdr oulf tctfp7
td`fg ecmumouggfm nuhumlfm fpfpum). Gc`uf lrfidg dmd tcrjdnft ecedjdgd gckcm`crumlfm yfml
sfef, yfdtu umtug mdjfd gckcpftfm u`frf yfml `dtdmlgftgfm, mdjfd gacidsdcm trfmsicr pfmfs oulf
dgut ecmdmlgft. Nfj dmd `fpft `docjfsgfm schflfd hcrdgut.
Hcr`fsfrgfm rueus pcrndtumlfm?
2.682;232.682;2382.682;2302.682;2392.682;23>
2.682;292.682;2982.682;2902.682;2992.682;29>
2.682;2