Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

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CHAPTER 5: CELL DIVISION BAB 5: PEMBAHAGIAN SEL Mitosis Mitosis is the division of the nucleus to produce two new daughter cells containing chromosomes identical to the parents. Mitosis adalah pembahagian nukleus untuk menghasilkan dua sel anak yang mengandungi kromosom yang sama dengan sel induk. The importance of mitosis includes: Kepentingan mitosis adalah seperti berikut o Growth; allows a zygote to produce more cell in order to grow Pembesaran; membolehkan zigot untuk menghasilkan sel yang banyak untuk pembesaran o Repair and replacement; allows the multicellular organism maintain its tissues, example skin cells and blood. Pemulihan dan penggantian; membolehkan organisma multisel untuk mengekalkan tisunya, contohnya sel kulit dan darah. o Asexual reproduction. Pembiakan aseksual. Cell Cycle Kitar sel The cell cycle shows the events that take place in a cell from the moment it was formed until it divides. Kitar sel menunjukkan kitar hidup suatu sel daripada waktu ia dibentuk sehingga ia membahagi. The cycle is divided into two major phases; Kitar sel dibahagi kepada dua fasa utama; a) Interphase/interfasa b) Mitosis 1. Interphase is the period between division, divided into 3 sub- phases ( G1, S & G2 ) Interfasa adalah tempoh antara pembahagian sel, ia dibahagikan kepada 3 fasa (G1, S & G2) G1- cells grow rapidly and new organelle are synthesized/sel membesar dengan pantas dan organel baru dihasilkan S- synthesis of DNA and chromosomes are replicated/sintesis DNA dan kromosom 1

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Detailed bilingual notes for Form 4 Biology Chapter 5: Cell Division.

Transcript of Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

Page 1: Form 4 Biology Chapter 5 Cell Division

CHAPTER 5: CELL DIVISIONBAB 5: PEMBAHAGIAN SELMitosis

Mitosis is the division of the nucleus to produce two new daughter cells containing chromosomes identical to the parents.Mitosis adalah pembahagian nukleus untuk menghasilkan dua sel anak yang mengandungi kromosom yang sama dengan sel induk.

The importance of mitosis includes:Kepentingan mitosis adalah seperti berikut

o Growth; allows a zygote to produce more cell in order to growPembesaran; membolehkan zigot untuk menghasilkan sel yang banyak untuk pembesaran

o Repair and replacement; allows the multicellular organism maintain its tissues, example skin cells and blood.Pemulihan dan penggantian; membolehkan organisma multisel untuk mengekalkan tisunya, contohnya sel kulit dan darah.

o Asexual reproduction.Pembiakan aseksual.

Cell CycleKitar sel The cell cycle shows the events that take place in a cell from the moment it was formed

until it divides.Kitar sel menunjukkan kitar hidup suatu sel daripada waktu ia dibentuk sehingga ia membahagi.

The cycle is divided into two major phases;Kitar sel dibahagi kepada dua fasa utama;a) Interphase/interfasab) Mitosis

1. Interphase is the period between division, divided into 3 sub-phases ( G1, S & G2 )Interfasa adalah tempoh antara pembahagian sel, ia dibahagikan kepada 3 fasa (G1, S & G2) G1- cells grow rapidly and new organelle are synthesized/sel membesar dengan pantas dan

organel baru dihasilkan S- synthesis of DNA and chromosomes are replicated/sintesis DNA dan kromosom G2- cells prepares for mitosis, synthesises protein and mitotic spindle begin to form/sel

bersedia untuk mitosis,mula mensintesis protein dan gelendong mitosis mula terbentuk.

2. M phase (cell division)/ Fasa M (pembahagian sel) Mitosis: nucleus divides/pembahagian nukleus

o prophase metaphase anaphase telophase / profasa metafasa anafasa telofasa

cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm/sitokinesis; pembahagian sitoplasma

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Mitosis

Prophase/profasaEarly prophase/ awal profasa Chromatids condense and become

visible in a light microscope/kromatid mengecut dan kelihatan dengan jelas dibawah mikroskop cahaya.

Nucleolus disappears/nukleolus mula hilang.

Paired centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell/sentriol bergerak ke kutub sel.

Late prophase/ akhir profasa Nuclear membrane

disappears/membrane nukleus hilang. Spindles form/gentian gelendong

terbentuk.

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Metaphase/metafasa Spindle fibres are fully formed/gentian

gelendong terbentuk sepenuhnya. Sister chromatids line up at the

spindle equator/kromosom berbaris pada satah khatulistiwa.

At the end of metaphase, the centromeres divide/pada akhir metafasa, sentromer membahagi dua.

Anaphase/anafasa Anaphase begins with the separation

of the centromeres/anafasa bermula dengan pemisahan sentromer.

The sister chromatids are drawn to opposite poles of the cell by contraction of spindle fibres/kromatid beradik ditarik ke kutub bertentangan oleh pengecutan gentian gelendong.

Telophase/telofasa Telophase begins when the two sets

of daughter chromosomes have reached the two poles of the cell/telofasa bermula apabila dua set kromosom sampai ke kutub sel.

Spindle fibres disintegrate, the nuclear membrane forms around each set of daughter chromosomes and the nucleoli reappear/gentian gelendong hilang, mambran nuclear terbentuk disekeliling kromosom dan nukleolus mula terbentuk.

The chromosomes uncoil and become less visible under the light microscope/kromosom mula mengendur dan tidak kelihatan dengan jelas dibawah mikroskop.

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Cytokinesis/sitokinesis The division of

cytoplasm/pembahagian sitoplasma Animal cell = actin filaments in the

cytoplasm contracts to pull a ring of the plasma membrane inwards to form a cleavage furrow > the cell is separated into 2 daughter cells.Sel haiwan = filament aktin dalam sitoplasma mengecut dan menarik membrane plasma ke dalam > sel tersebut akan dipisahkan menjadi dua sel.

Plant cell = starts with the formation of the cell plate at the equator of the cell > cell plate enlarge > new cell wall is formed > 2 daughter cells are produced.Sel tumbuhan = bermula dengan pembentukan plat sel pada satah khatulistiwa sel > plat sel membesar > dinding sel baru terbentuk > 2 sel anak terhasil

The effects of uncontrolled mitosis in living things / kesan mitosis tidak terkawal dalam benda hidup

Mutation is the change in the DNA structure of the cell.Mutasi adalah perubahan dalam struktur DNA.

This change in DNA corrupts the coded genetic instruction for the mitosis control.Perubahan pada DNA merosakkan kod genetik yang mengawal mitosis.

This leads to uncontrolled mitosis, which is the non-stop division of cells, producing a mass of new daughter cells, called tumour.Ini menyebabkan mitosis tidak terkawal, dimana pembahagian sel berlaku secara tidak terkawal, menghasilkan anak sel baru yang banyak dikenali sebagai tumor.

Causes of cancer/punca kansero Genetic – some forms of cancer like prostate, colon, breast, skin, ovary are suspected to

be inherited from the parentsGenetik – sesetengah kanser seperti kanser prostat, kolon, buah dada, kulit dan ovari mungkin boleh didapati melalui keturunan.

o Carcinogens – these are chemicals which affect genetic activity and cause cancer, e.g of carcinogen are diesel exhaust, cigarette smoke, hair dyes, soot, arsenic, benzene and formaldehydeKarsinogen – bahan kimia yang boleh mengubah aktiviti genetik dan menyebabkan kanser, contohnya gas ekzos diesel, asap rokok, pewarna rambut, jelaga, arsenik, benzene, dan formaldehid

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o Radiation – excess exposure to x-ray, gamma-rays, and ultra violet rays lead to increase cancer riskRadiasi – pendedahan berlebihan kepada sinar-x, sinar gamma, sinar ultraungu boleh meningkatkan risiko kanser

o Age – some cancers are found primarily in young people e.g leukemia, while some cancers e.g colon cancers are found mostly on older adultsUmur – sesetengah kanser wujud pada orang muda seperti leukemia manakala sesetengah kanser wujud pada orang yang lebih tua seperti kanser kolon.

o Viruses – some viruses such as the EB and HPV cause cancerVirus – sesetengah virus seperti EB dan HPV menyebabkan kanser

Cloning/pengklonan

1. Cloning is a process of the making clones which are genetically identical cells produced from a single parent by mitotic division, or through asexual reproduction.Pengklonan adalah proses penghasilan klon yang mempunyai genetik yang sama dengan sel induk melalui pembahagian mitosis atau melalui pembiakan aseksual.

2. We shall study the application of knowledge on mitosis in the cloning of:Pengetahuan mengenai mitosis boleh diaplikasikan dalam pengklonan:

a) Microbes/mikrobb) Plants/tumbuhanc) Animals/haiwan

The main principles of tissue culture (cloning of plants)/prinsip utama dalam pengkulturan tisu (pengklonan tumbuhan):

a) A pieces of tissues, called explants, is taken from a plant ( e.g carrot root or stem tissue ).Secebis tisu, dipanggil eksplan diambil dari tumbuhan (akar lobak atau tisu stem)

b) The pieces of tissues are sterilized with dilute sodium hypochlorite solution to prevent the growth of pathogens (such as bacteria and fungus).Tisu tersebut disterilkan dengan larutan natrium hipoklorit untuk menghalang pembiakan pathogen (bakteria dan kulat)

c) Each sterile tissue piece is placed onto a growth medium (gel containing nutrients and growth regulators)Tisu yang steril diletakkan pada medium pertumbuhan (agar yang mengandungi nutrient dan hormon pertumbuhan)

d) The tissues cells divided by mitosis to produce a mass of loosely arranged undifferentiated cells called callus.Sel tisu membahagi secara mitosis untuk menghasilkan tisu yang mengandungi sel yang belum mengalami pembezaan yang dipanggil sebagai kalus.

e) Callus is stimulated with shoot-stimulating hormone to form multiple shoots.Kalus dirangsang dengan hormoneperangsang pucuk untuk menghasilkan pucuk.

f) The shoots are separated and each is placed in nutrient medium with root-stimulating hormone to encourage rooting.

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Pucuk-pucuk tersebut akan dipisahkan dan diletakkan dalam medium nutrient tang mengandungi hormon perangsang akar untuk merangsang penghasilan akar.

g) Once the roots grow, the plantlets (little plants) are planted in sterile compost to grow.Apabila akar mula tumbuh, tumbuhan tersebut akan ditanam dalm kompos yang steril.

Animal cloning/pengklonan haiwan

These are two types of animal cloning according to purpose/terdapat dua jenis pengklonan haiwan:

o Reproductive cloning/pengklonan pembiakan Producing an entire animal that is genetically identical to the parent animal

Penghasilan organisma baru yang serupa kandungan genetiknya dengan haiwan induk.

The entire animal is produced form a single cell by asexual reproduction through mitosisOrganisma baru itu terbentuk daripada sel tunggal melalui pembiakan aseksual .

o Therapeutic cloning/pengklonan terapeutik Is a branch of medicine concerned with the treatment diseases

Bidang perubatan yang terlibat dalam rawatan penyakit Parts of a person skin, heart, liver or even just a few cells are duplicated to

produce a cloneBahagian badan tertentu seperti kulit, jantung, hati ataupun sekumpulan sel diklonkan.

The clone tissue is used to replace a damaged/diseases tissue without risk of tissue rejectionTisu klon ini digunakan untuk menggantikan tisu yang rosak atau berpenyakit tanpa risiko penolakan.

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Clone microbes using cell culture and fermenters/pengklonan mikrob menggunakan kultur sel dan penapaian industri

1. Cell culture/kultur sela) You can easily clone microbes (bacteria and some fungi) in you science laboratory through

natural asexual reproduction.Mikrob seperti bakteria dan kulat boleh diklon dengan mudah dalam makmal melalui pembiakan aseksual.

b) First, grow a sample of microbial cells on a solid nutrient medium in an agar plate and later grow it in liquid medium in a culture flask.Suatu sampel sel mirob dibiakkan pada medium agar pejal dan kemudiannya dibiakkan dalam medium cecair dalam kelalang kultur.

2. Fermenters/penapaian industria) Fermenters are vessels used in biotechnology to grow microbes on a large scale.

Penapaian industry adalah bekas yang digunakan dalam industry bioteknologi untuk membiak mikrob pada skala yang besar.

b) Microbes, like yeast are mixed with a culture medium and left in a fermenters to grow by mitosis.Mikrob, seperti yis dicampur dengan medium kultur dan dibiarkan dalam bekas untuk membiak melalui mitosis.

c) The fermenter is constantly stirred and aerated.Bekas tersebut sentiasa diudarakan dan dikacau.

d) The environment conditions (such as pH, oxygen, pressured and temperature) are constantly monitored using probes to ensure the maximum growth of the microbes.Keadaan persekitaran seperti pH, oksigen, tekanan dan suhu dikawal supaya pertumbuhan mikrob adalah maksimum.

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Advantages of cloning/kebaikan pengklonan

1. Produced in a short time (increase quantity) / dihasilkan dalam masa yang singkat2. The good qualities of the plants/animals can be selected & maintained in the clones / kualiti

yang baik dalam tumbuhan/haiwan boleh dipilih dan dikekalkan dalam klon.3. Increase the rates of production & the quality of the product / meningkatkan kadar penghasilan

dan kualiti produk.4. Ensure the continuity of hereditary traits from parent to the clones / memastikan sifat baik

daripada induk diturunkan kepada klon. 5. Can be carried out any time of the year / boleh dilakukan pada bila-bila masa.

Disadvantage of cloning/keburukan pengklonan

1. The resistance of the clones towards diseases & pests is the same. If one organism is infected, the infection can easily spread to other organisms. Leads to the extinction of the species.Rintangan klon terhadap penyakit dan serangga perosak adalah sama. Jika satu organisma dijangkiti, kesemua klon akan dijangkiti. Boleh menyebabkan kepupusan spesies.

2. Carried out under controlled environment. External environment changes, the clones will be destroyed.Diwujudkan dalam persekitaran terkawal. Perubahan persekitaran luaran boleh menyebabkan kematian klon.

3. Prevents natural selection / mengelakkan proses pilihan semula jadi.4. No variation / tiada variasi.

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Meiosis

In a diploid cell, chromosomes occur as pairs (homologous chromosomes).Dalam sel diploid, kromosom wujud secara berpasangan (kromosom homolog)

Meiosis is a process to convert a diploid cell to a haploid gamete and cause a change in the genetic information to increase diversity in the offspring.Meiosis adalah proses pembahagian sel yang menukarkan sel diploid ke sel haploid (gamet) dan ia juga menyebabkan perubahan kandungan genetic yang meningkatkan kepelbagaian dalam zuriat.

Meiosis involve two successive nuclear division (meiosis I) is the reduction division; the second division (meiosis II) separates the chromatids.Meiosis mempunyai dua peringkat pembahagian nukleus (meiosis I) iaitu pembahagian reduksi dan pembahagian kedua (meiosis II) yang memisahkan kromatid.

Prophase I/profasa I Chromosome condense; they become

shorter, thicker and visible.Kromosom mengecut; ia menjdi pendek, menebal dan kelihatan dengan lebih jelas.

Homologous chromosome forms a pair of bivalents through synapsis.Kromosom homolog membentuk bivalen melalui proses sinapsis.

Each bivalent consists of tetrad (4 sister chromatids)Setiap bivaen terdiri daripada tetrad (4 kromatid beradik)

Crossing over occurs.Pindah silang berlaku

Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between two non-sister chromatids.Pindah silang adalah pertukaran kandungan genetik antara dua kromatid bukan beradik.

At the end of prophase, nucleus and nucleolus disappears.Pada akhir profasa, nukleus dan nukleolus mula hilang.

Centrioles move to the opposite poles and spindle fiber begins to form.Sentriol bergerak ke kutub bertentangan dan gentian gelendong mula terbentuk.

Metaphase I/metafasa I Homologous chromosomes line up at the

equator.Kromosom homolog berbaris di satah khatulistiwa.

Spindle fiber is attached to the centromere of each chromosome.

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Gentian gelendong bercantum pada sentromer setiap kromosom.

Anaphase I/anafasa I The spindle fibers contract pulling the

homologous chromosomes to the opposite poles.Gentian gelendong mengecut, menarik kromosome homolog ke kutub bertentangan.

Each of the homologous chromosomes move to the opposite poles.Setiap kromosom homolog bergerak ke kutub bertentangan.

Telophase I/Telofasa I The chromosomes arrives at the poles.

Kromosom tiba di kutub bertentangan. The spindle fiber disappears.

Gentian gelendong mula hilang. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus

reappears.Membran nukleus dan nukleolus mula terbentuk

Cytokinesis happens at the end of telophase I and immediately proceeds with prophase II.Sitokinesis berlaku pada ahujung telofasa I dan bersambung dengan profasa II.

Prophase II/profasa II Nuclear membrane disintegrates.

Membran nuklear mula hilang. Spindle fiber re-forms in each cell.

Gentian gelendong terbentuk semula dalam setiap sel.

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Metaphase II/metafasa II The chromosomes line up at the equator.

Kromosom berbaris pada satah khatulistiwa. Spindle fiber attaches at the centromere of

each chromosome.Gentian gelendong bercantum pada sentromer setiap kromosom.

Anaphase II/anafasa II Spindle fiber contracts separating the sister

chromatids at the centromere.Gentian gelendong mengecut, memisahkan kromatid beradik pada sentromer.

Each sister chromatids move to the opposite pole.Setiap kromatid beradik bergerak ke kutub bertentangan.

Telophase II/telofasa II Chromosome reaches the pole.

Kromosom tiba ke kutub bertentangan. Nuclear membrane and nucleoli reappears.

Membran nukleus dan nukleoli terbentuk. Spindle fiber breaks down.

Gentian gelendong mula hilang. Cytokinesis follows and four haploid cell is

formed.Sitokinesis berlaku dan empat sel haploid terbentuk.

Comparison between Meiosis I and Meiosis IIPerbandingan antara Meiosis I dan Meiosis II

MEIOSIS I SIMILARITIES/PERSAMAAN MEIOSIS IIConsist of 4 stages/terdiri daripada 4 peringkat

Involve division of nucleus & cytokinesis/melibatkan pembahagian nukleus & sitokinesis.DIFFERENCES/PERBEZAAN

Occur/berlaku Synapsis/sinapsis Do not occur/tidak berlakuYes/ya Cross over/pindah silang No/tidakM I- paired homologues chromosomes line up at the equator/kromosom homolog bersusun pada satah khatulistiwa.

Metaphase/metafasa M II- each chromosomes with sister chromatids line up at the equator/setiap kromosom dengan kromatid beradik bersusun pada satah khatulistiwa.

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A I- paired homologues chromosomes separated & move to opposite poles/kromosom homolog berpisah dan bergerak ke kutub bertentangan.

Anaphase/anafasa A II- the sister chromatids separated & move to opposite poles/kromatid beradik berpisah dan bergerak ke kutub bertentangan.

2 haploid cells are formed/2 sel haploid terbentuk

At the end/pada peringkat akhir

4 haploid cells are formed/4 sel haploid terbentuk.

The Comparison between Mitosis & MeiosisPerbandingan antara Mitosis & Meiosis

MEIOSIS SIMILARITIES/PERSAMAAN MITOSISDivision of cells/pembahagian sel

The chromosomes replicates only once/replikasi kromosom berlaku hanya sekali.DIFFERENCE/PERBEZAAN

In reproduction organ/dalam organ pembiakkan

Place occur/lokasi In somatic cell/dalam sel somatik

Parent cell divides twice/sel induk membahagi sebanyak

dua kali

Number of divisions/bilangan pembahagian

Parent cell divides once/sel induk membahagi hanya

sekali4 haploid daughter cell/4 sel

anak haploidNumber of daughter

cells/bilangan sel anak2 diploid daughter cells/2 sel

anak diploidOccurs at prophase I/berlaku

pada profasa ISynapsis of homologous chromosomes/sinapsis

kromosom homolog

Do not occurs/tidak berlaku

Occurs twice/berlaku sebanyak dua kali

Number of cytokinesis/bilangan

sitokinesis

Occurs once/berlaku sekali

Occurs at prophase I/berlaku pada profasa I

Crossing over of non-sister chromatids of homologous

chromosomes/pindah silang kromatid bukan beradik

kromsosom homolog

Do not occurs/tidak berlaku

Half of the number of chromosomes of the parent

cell (haploid)/separuh bilangan kromosome

daripada sel induk(haploid)

Number of chromosomes in daughter cells/bilangan

kromosom dalam sel anak

Genetically identical to the parent cell/kandungan

genetic yang serupa dengan sel induk

Genetically non-identical to the parent cell & each

other/kandungan genetic tidak serupa dengan sel induk

dan satu sama lain

Genetic composition of daughter cells/kandungan

genetic sel anak

Genetically identical to the parent cell/kandungan

genetic yang serupa dengan sel induk

Occurs once during interphase before meiosis

I/berlaku sekali semasa interfasa sebelum meiosis I

DNA replication/replikasi DNA Occurs during interphase before mitosis begins/berlaku

semasa interfasa sebelum mitosis berlaku

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Importance of meiosis/kepentingan meiosis

Ensures that diploid number of chromosomes are maintained in each generation.Memastikan bilangan kromosom diploid wujud dalam setiap generasi.

Meiosis provides genetic variation in gametes:Meiosis mewujudkan variasi genetik dalam gamet:

o The process of crossing over during prophase allows for genetic materials to be exchanged between non-sister chromatids. This results in new sets of chromosomes.Pindah silang memastikan penukaran kandungan genetik antara kromatid bukan beradik. Ia mewujudkan set kromosom yang berlainan dengan induk.

o During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes arranged independently and randomly (independent assortment). This also allows for formation of different types of gametes. Semasa metafasa I, kromosom homolog bersusun secara rawak dan bebas. Ini menghasilkan gamet yang berbeza antara satu sama lain.

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Crossing over / pindah silang

Independent assortment

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