NOTE 1CADANGAN PENYELIDIKANSeseorang penyelidik perlu menyediakan cadangan penyelidikan terlebih dahulu sebelum projek penyelidikan dilaksanakan. Cadangan boleh disediakan secara ringkas atau terperinci mengikut keadaan tertentu. Sekiranya penyelidikan yang akan dijalankan adalah persendirian, cadangan penyelidikan bolehlah disediakan secara ringkas sahaja, sebaliknya jika penyelidikan itu memerlukan peruntukan luar, bantuan kewangan, material dan tenaga - cadangan penyelidikan perlulah disediakan dengan terperinci. Tujuan cadangan penyelidikan disediakan adalah untuk dinilai oleh pihak penganjur bagi tujuan pembiayaan dan kelulusan. Cadangan penyelidikan juga perlu dibentangkan sebagai kertas kerja dalam seminar untuk diteliti dari pelbagai aspek terutamanya dari segi metodologi. Sesuatu cadangan penyelidikan yang terperinci perlulah mempunyai perkara berikut:

1. Tajuk PenyelidikanMenerangkan secara ringkas dan tepat tentang masalah dan skop kajian. Sebaik-baiknya hadkan perkataan tidak melebihi sepuluh perkataan sahaja. Elakkan penggunaan rangkai kata seperti Suatu kajian... atau Suatu analisis...

2. Kenyataan MasalahTujuan penyelidikan adalah untuk menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah atau mencari jawapan kepada sesuatu persoalan. Dalam kenyataan masalah, perlu dinyatakan sedikit latarbelakang perkara yang hendak diselidiki seperti sejarah, yang berhubung dengan masalah itu. Juga dinyatakan mustahaknya masalah yang dikaji dan implikasinya jika dibiarkan begitu sahaja. Tujuan kenyataan masalah juga adalah untuk cuba mengorientasikan pemikiran atau menarik perhatian pembaca kepada masalah yang mahu diselesaikan dalam penyelidikan kita. Ia juga bertujuan untuk menguatkan kepentingan masalah yang dikaji. Oleh itu kenyataan masalah bertujuan untuk meyakinkan penyelia atau penaja yang akan membiayai penyelidikan. Dalam kenyataan masalah juga kita perlu menekankan tajuk penyelidikan yang telah dipilih itu benar-benar berguna kepada pihakpihak tertentu. Jika cadangan penyelidikan itu ditujukan kepada penaja, kenyataan masalah tidak perlu terlalu panjang, cukup satu paragraf sahaja. Tetapai jika untuk tujuan ilmiah, maka kenyataan masalah perlu ditulis dengan panjang lebar, merangkumi banyak aspek dan mengandungi data perangkaan serta maklumat-maklumat yang berdokumentasi. Cara penulisan juga perlulah secara ilmiah. Faedah kenyataan masalah ialah membantu kita menyediakan objektif penyelidikan dan keseluruhan kenyataan masalah tadi dapat dijadikan sebahagian dari laporan penyelidikian kelak iaitu dalam Bab1 di bawah pendahuluan atau pengenalan. Elakkan daripada membesar-besarkan kepentingan masalah tersebut secara berlebihan.

3. Objektif Penyelidikan1

Objektif penyelidikan meliputi aspek-aspek yang hendak dicapai atau dilaksanakan dalam sesuatu penyelidikan. Biasanya disebut objektif umum (matlamat) dahulu sebelum dituliskan objektif khusus. Objektif khusus adalah bersifat lebih terperinci, tegas dan berkaitan rapat dengan objektif umum. Objektif penyelidikan perlulah;

Menggariskan sempadan atau skop sesuatu penyelidikan Mencadangkan atau menjelaskan cara-cara melaksanakan penyelidikan. Membayangkan keadaan atau sifat daripada hasil akhir sesuatu penyelidikan kepada pembaca. Memperkenalkan siapakah yang menjadi pembaca/pelanggan kepada penyelidikan itu.

4. Hipotesis/soalan kajianHipotesis adalah ramalan atau andaian yang berdasarkan kepada logik. Soalan kajian adalah alternatif kepada hipotesis sekiranya hipotesis tidak dapat dibentuk dari tajuk penyelidikan.

5. Kesignifikanan kajianMenghubungkan kepentingan penyelidikan dengan kehidupan seharian.

6. Ulasan Bahan rujukan.Penyelidik perlu membuat penyelidikan perpustakaan (literature research) untuk menentukan samada penyelidik lain pernah membuat kajian yang sama, atau yang ada hubungan dengan tajuk yang telah dipilih. Ini dapat mengelakkan pertindihan tajuk/bidang/skop penyelidikan berlaku. Semasa menulis cadangan penyelidikan, ulasan bahan rujukan, penyelidik tidaklah perlu menulis dengan panjang lebar, cukup sekadar ringkasan mengenai kedudukan ilmu pengetahuan masa kini mengenai tajuk yang telah dipilih, merangkumi teori mengenai perkara yang sama, baik di kawasan itu atau kawasan lain di Malaysia dan luar negeri. Keutamaan harus diberikan kepada karya-karya tempatan atas tajuk yang sama atau hampir sama. Jika tidak ada, tinjaulah karya-karya luar negeri.

7. Metodologi atau KaedahMetodologi penyelidikan ialah bagaimana tiap-tiap satu objektif penyelidikian itu hendak dicapai. Metodologi penyelidikan perlulah menyatakan;

Jenis maklumat (data) yang akan dikumpulkan. Bagaimana data tadi akan dikumpulkan, samaa daripada sumber utama atau sekunder. Kawasan geografi yang hendak dikaji dan alasan mengapa lokasi itu dipilih. Bagaimana data yang dikumpul itu dianalisis supaya setiap satu maklumat penyelidikan dapat dilaksanakan sepenuhnya. Jenis rekabentuk persampelan. 2

8. Anggaran Belanjawan dan Jadual KerjaIalah butiran tentang perbelanjaan yang dijangka akan ditanggung oleh penaja atau penyelidik bagi menjalankan kajian. Jadual kerja yang terperinci diperlukan supaya penaja atau penyelia dapat mengikuti perkembangan penyelidikan yang sedang dijalankan oleh penyelidik. Perlu dinyatakan tarikh sesuatu kerja yang akan dilaksanakan seperti merangka soalselidik, menemu ramah, menghantar soalselidik dan mengumpulkannya, pengolahan data dan menulis laporan.

NOTE 2Writing up Research

Using the LiteratureHow to use this page: This page is designed to be interactive, so in places you can jump forward for more information, or will be asked questions that you find answers by using the links. Simply click on the link, then use the arrow to return to where you were. This page covers: What is "the literature"? Why write a review of the literature? Writing your own literature review How can I write a good literature review? Traps Literature review: an example

WHAT IS THE LITERATURE?Although you might think of novels and poetry when you hear the word "literature," for a piece of research the meaning is more specific. In terms of a literature review, "the literature"

means the works you consulted in order to understand and investigate your research problem.How useful are the following sources? journal articles books conference proceedings government and corporate reports newspapers theses and dissertations Internet (electronic journals) CD-ROM magazines

Journal articles: these are good especially for up-to-date information. Bear in mind, though, that it can take up to two years to publish articles. They are frequently used in literature reviews because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research, and because all reputable journals are refereed (i.e. editors publish only the most relevant and

3

reliable research). Books: books tend to be less up-to-date as it takes longer for a book to be published than for a journal article. Text books are unlikely to be useful for including in your literature review as they are intended for teaching, not for research, but they do offer a good starting point from which to find more detailed sources. Conference proceedings: these can be useful in providing the latest research, or research that has not been published. They are also helpful in providing information on which people are currently involved in which research areas, and so can be helpful in tracking down other work by the same researchers. Government/corporate reports: many government departments and corporations commission or carry out research. Their published findings can provide a useful source of information, depending on your field of study. Newspapers: since newspapers are generally intended for a general (not specialized) audience, the information they provide will be of very limited use for your literature review. Often newspapers are more helpful as providers of information about recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g. announcing changes in government policy, but you should then search for more detailed information in other sources. Theses and dissertations: these can be useful sources of information. However there are disadvantages: 1) they can be difficult to obtain since they are not published, but are generally only available from the library shelf or through interlibrary loan; 2) the student who carried out the research may not be an experienced researcher and therefore you might have to treat their findings with more caution than published research. Internet: the fastest-growing source of information is on the Internet. It is impossible to characterize the information available but here are some hints about using electronic sources: 1) bear in mind that anyone can post information on the Internet so the quality may not be reliable, 2) the information you find may be intended for a general audience and so not be suitable for inclusion in your literature review (information for a general audience is usually less detailed) and 3) more and more refereed electronic journals (e-journals) are appearing on the Internet - if they are refereed it means that there is an editorial board that evaluates the work before publishing it in their e-journal, so the quality should be more reliable (depending on the reputation of the journal). CD-ROMS: at the moment, few CR-ROMs provide the kind of specialized, detailed information about academic research that you need for your own research since most are intended for a general audience. However, more and more bibliographies are being put onto CD-ROM for use in academic libraries, so they can be a very valuable tool in searching for the information you need. Magazines: magazines intended for a general audience (e.g. Time) are unlikely to be useful in providing the sort of information you need. Specialized magazines may be more useful (for example business magazines for management students) but usually magazines are not useful for your research except as a starting point by providing news or general information about new discoveries, policies, etc. that you can further research in more specialized sources.

WHY WRITE A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE?The literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to the work that you are carrying out. Some people think that it is a summary: this is not true. Although you need to summarize relevant research, it is also vital that you evaluate this work, show the relationships between different work, and show how it relates to your work. In other words, you cannot simply

4

give a concise description of, for example, an article: you need to select what parts of the research to discuss (e.g. the methodology), show how it relates to the other work (e.g. What other methodologies have been used? How are they similar? How are they different?) and show how it relates to your work (what is its relationship to your methodology?). Keep in mind that the literature review should provide the context for your research by looking at what work has already been done in your research area. It is not supposed to be just a summary of other people's work! Here are some of the questions your literature review should answer:

1. What do we already know in the immediate area concerned? 2. What are the characteristics of the key concepts or the main factors or variables? 3. What are the relationships between these key concepts, factors or variables? 4. What are the existing theories? 5. Where are the inconsistencies or other shortcomings in our knowledge and understanding? 6. What views need to be (further) tested? 7. What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradictory or too limited? 8. Why study (further) the research problem? 9. What contribution can the present study be expected to make? 10. What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory? WRITING YOUR OWN LITERATURE REVIEW It's easy to write a bad literature review and difficult to write a good one. The main mistake that a lot of people make is to write a literature review that looks like this: Until recently many researchers have shown interest in the field of coastal erosion and the resulting beach profiles. They have carried out numerous laboratory experiments and field observations to illuminate the darkness of this field. Their findings and suggestions are reviewed here. JACHOWSKI (1964) developed a model investigation conducted on the interlocking precast concrete block seawall. After a result of a survey of damages caused by the severe storm at the coast of USA, a new and especially shaped concrete block was developed for use in shore protection. This block was designed to be used in a revetment type seawall that would be both durable and economical as well as reduce wave run-up and overtopping, and scour at its base or toe. It was proved that effective shore protection could be designed utilizing these units. HOM-MA and HORIKAWA (1964) studied waves forces acting on the seawall which was located inside the surf zone. On the basis of the experimental results 5

conducted to measure waves forces against a vertical wall, the authors proposed an empirical formula of wave pressure distribution on a seawall. The computed results obtained by using the above formula were compared well with the field data of wave pressure on a vertical wall. SELEZOV and ZHELEZNYAK (1965) conducted experiments on scour of sea bottom in front of harbor seawalls, basing on the theoretical investigation of solitary wave interaction with a vertical wall using Boussinesque type equation. It showed that the numerical results were in reasonable agreement with laboratory experimental data. Have another look at the questions a literature review should answer (the arrow will bring you back here). See if you can answer the following questions about the literature review above: Which of the questions does this literature review answer? Which of them doesn't it answer? What system has the writer used to organize the literature review? Is it a good literature review? Why/why not? HOW CAN I WRITE A GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW? Remember the purpose: it should answer the questions we looked at above. Look at how published writers review the literature. You'll see that you should use the literature to explain your research - after all, you are not writing a literature review just to tell your reader what other researchers have done. You aim should be to show why your research needs to be carried out, how you came to choose certain methodologies or theories to work with, how your work adds to the research already carried out, etc. Read with a purpose: you need to summarize the work you read but you must also decide which ideas or information are important to your research (so you can emphasize them), and which are less important and can be covered briefly or left out of your review. You should also look for the major concepts, conclusions, theories, arguments etc. that underlie the work, and look for similarities and differences with closely related work. This is difficult when you first start reading, but should become easier the more you read in your area. Write with a purpose: your aim should be to evaluate and show relationships between the work already done (Is Researcher Y's theory more convincing than Researcher X's? Did Researcher X build on the work of Researcher Y?) and between this work and your own. In order to do this effectively you should carefully plan how you are going to organize your work. A lot of people like to organize their work chronologically (using time as their organizing system). Unless developments over time are crucial to explain the context of your research problem, using a chronological system will not be an effective way to organize your work. Some people choose to organize their work alphabetically by author name: this system will not allow you to show the 6

relationships between the work of different researchers, and your work, and should be avoided! For more information about writing, access The Basics of Good Writing. When you read for your literature review, you are actually doing two things at the same time (which makes things more difficult for you!): you are trying to define your research problem: finding a gap, asking a question, continuing previous research, counter-claiming (see the introductions page); 2. you are trying to read every source relevant to your research problem. 1. Naturally, until you have defined your problem, you will find that there are hundreds of sources that seem relevant. However, you cannot define your problem until you read around your research area. This seems a vicious circle, but what should happen is that as you read you define your problem, and as you define your problem you will more easily be able to decide what to read and what to ignore. TRAPS Some traps to avoid: Trying to read everything! As you might already have discovered, if you try to be comprehensive you will never be able to finish the reading! The idea of the literature review is not to provide a summary of all the published work that relates to your research, but a survey of the most relevant and significant work. Reading but not writing! It's easier to read than to write: given the choice, most of us would rather sit down with a cup of coffee and read yet another article instead of putting ourselves in front of the computer to write about what we have already read! Writing takes much more effort, doesn't it? However, writing can help you to understand and find relationships between the work you've read, so don't put writing off until you've "finished" reading - after all, you will probably still be doing some reading all the way through to the end of your research project. Also, don't think of what you first write as being the final or near-final version. Writing is a way of thinking, so allow yourself to write as many drafts as you need, changing your ideas and information as you learn more about the context of your research problem. Not keeping bibliographic information! The moment will come when you have to write your references page . . . and then you realize you have forgotten to keep the information you need, and that you never got around to putting references into your work. The only solution is to spend a lot of time in the library tracking down all those sources that you read, and going through your writing to find which information came from 7

which source. If you're lucky, maybe you can actually do this before your defence - more likely, you will unable to find all your sources, a big headache for you and your committee. To avoid this nightmare, always keep this information in your notes. Always put references into your writing. Notice how on this course we have referenced the works that we have referred to - you should do the same. (Access our How to Reference page for more information about why and how to do reference).

LITERATURE REVIEW: AN EXAMPLEHere is an example of using the literature to explain and define a problem. This example is taken from an introduction because most thesis literature reviews tend to be too long for us to easily look at. Although your literature review will probably be much longer than the one below, it is useful to look at the principles the writers have used. On the optimal container size in automated warehouses Y. Roll, M.J. Rosenblatt and D. Kadosh, Proceedings of the Ninth ICPR

Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) are being introduced into the industry and warehousing at an increasing rate. Forecasts indicate that this trend will continue for the foreseeable future (see [1]). Research in the area of AS/RS has followed several avenues. Early work by Hausman, Schwarz and Graves [6, 7] was concerned with storage assignment and interleaving policies, based on turnover rates of the various items. Elsayed [3] and Elsayed and Stern [4] compared algorithms for handling orders in AR/RS. Additional work by Karasawa et al. [9], Azadivar [2] and Parry et al. [11] deals with the design of an AS/RS and the determination of its throughput by simulation and optimization techniques. Several researchers addressed the problem of the optimal handling unit (pallet or container) size, to be used in material handling and warehousing systems. Steudell [13], Tanchoco and Agee[14], Tanchoco et al. [15] and Grasso and Tanchoco [5] studied various aspects of this subject. The last two references incorporate the size of the pallet, or unit load, in evaluation of the optimal lot sizes for multi-inventory systems with limited storage space. In a report on a specific case, Normandin [10] has demonstrated that using the 'best-size' container can result in considerable savings. A simulation model combining container size and warehouse capacity considerations, in an AS/RS environment, was developed by Kadosh [8]. The general results, reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are similar to those reported by Rosenblatt and Roll [12]. Nevertheless, container size was found to affect strongly overall warehousing costs.In this paper, we present an analytical framework for approximating the optimal size of a warehouse container. The approximation is based on series of generalizations and specific assumptions. However, these are valid for a wide range of real life situations. The underlying assumptions of the model are presented in the following section.

Notice how the writers have:

8

grouped similar information: "Steudell [13], Tanchoco and Agee[14], Tanchoco et al. [15] and Grasso and Tanchoco [5] studied various aspects of this subject." shown the relationship between the work of different researchers, showing similarities/differences: "The general results, reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are similar to those reported by Rosenblatt and Roll [12]." indicated the position of the work in the research area history: "Early work by Hausman, Schwarz and Graves [6, 7] . . . " moved from a general discussion of the research in AS/RS to the more specific area (optimal container size) that they themselves are researching i.e. they relate previous work to their own to define it, justify it and explain it.

HERE IS AN OUTLINE OF THE SAME PIECE OF WRITINGOn the optimal container size in automated warehouses Y. Roll, M.J. Rosenblatt and D. Kadosh, Proceedings of the Ninth ICPR 1. Forecasts of increasing rate of AR/RS introduction [1] 2. Storage assignment/interleaving policies (Hausman, Schwarz, Graves [6,7]) 3. Comparison of algorithms for handling orders (Elsayed [3], Elsayed & Stern [4]) 4. Design of AS/RS & determination of throughput (Karasawa et al. [9], Azadivar [2], Parry et al. [11]) 5. Optimal handling unit (Steudel [13], Tanchoco & Agee [14]) a. with pallet size/unit load (Tanchoco et al. [15], Grasso & Tanchoco [5]) b. best-size gives savings (Normandin [10]) c. simulation model (Kadosh [8]) d. stochastic flow (Kadosh [8], Rosenblatt and Roll [12]) 6. Summary of previous research: container size was found to affect strongly overall warehousing costs. 7. Present research: an analytical framework for approximating the optimal size of a warehouse container. From this outline, it is clear that the writers are organizing their information around ideas (in this case research) not around the researchers. This enables

9

them to focus on the research itself, to show how different research is related, and how it all relates to their own research.

NOTE 3 : Step to write Literature ReviewThere are 9 stages in developing a literature review. These are: Selecting the topic Setting the topic in context Looking at information sources Using information sources Getting the information Organising information (information management) Positioning the literature review Writing the literature review

Selecting the topicIdeas for topics come from myriad sources - some will be generated by interest in a particular area of previous work, others by discussing issues with peers and academics and some by reading the literature. Initial ideas can also be in various stages of development - some will be vague, others clear and well defined and many will be in the middle of the two extremes.

Like a seed, most research ideas have an inherent (inbuilt /natural) potential for growth and development.

When thinking about a suitable topic it is important to consider the implications of your choice:o o o o

can information be gathered locally? are you in a position to travel to use various sources? what are your interests and will this interest be maintained for the duration of the research? who will be interested in this research ? 10

o o o o o

is it sufficiently interesting to keep you, the author, working for the next 2 3 4 years? is the scope wide enough to be able to ascertain (determine / establish) a particular niche? is the scope so broad that it will lose direction? does it involve technology that is readily available? is training in technology and / or software readily available?

In the early stages it is probably wise to give all topics under consideration a title and write them down. Include a brief description of the content of each idea and a plan of how each topic could be developed. Writing sometimes helps define ideas and helps you to plot a course of action. Although the topic may change or aspects of it may change, it is still useful to record thoughts. It is also interesting to look back once the research has been completed and see how the topic evolved! While thinking about research topics:

discuss ideas with colleagues browse the literature, especially journals discuss ideas with your supervisor - he/she is an expert within the discipline and can help you decide on an appropriate topic.

Setting the topic in context

To grow, the seed must be placed within an appropriate context - a pot and some soil.

For your topic to grow there must also be a context and this is influenced by existing knowledge. Other influences include your work and study environment, your interaction with colleagues, peers and supervisors, and current opinions and attitudes towards your discipline. The role of the literature review is to analyse the existing literature and give justification as to how your research will fit into the existing body of knowledge. "This means that the literature review provides the general understanding which gives meaning to the discussion of findings, conclusions, and recommendations. This allows the author to demonstrate how

11

his research is linked to prior efforts and how it extends our understanding of this general line of scholarly inquiry". (Muskal 2000) When placing your topic in context it is often useful to think about the following:o o o o o o

what is the scope of the topic? what is the purpose of the research? who is the intended audience? what is the time period? what is the geographical coverage? what are the relevant/related disciplines?

Just like the seed:

A limited context may result in stunted growth

A wide context will result in uncontrollable and undirected overgrowth

Looking at information sources12

You will need to consult a wide range of information sources. Informal sources include contact with peers, colleagues, other researchers, your Faculty Liaison Librarian, and your supervisor. Just as important as the network of informal contacts are the formal sources, including:

books journals - scholarly, popular research papers theses world wide web bibliographies encyclopaedias handbooks maps newspapers government legislation standards statistics conference proceedings specific sources, such as ERIC documents (Education) and government documents

Remember:

not all relevant material is published - you may need to seek interviews with individual authors and ask for access to unpublished documents. not all appropriate sources of information will be relevant all of the time. discipline specific sources need to be identified. informal and formal sources are both necessary.

Further roots are now starting to grow from the seed. They are healthy and the wider the range of sources the firmer the foundation

13

Using information sourcesUsing information sources in a systematic and structured manner will save you a good deal of time. Developing a search strategy is vital as it provides you with an overall structure for your search and provides a record of your search history. This is an extremely useful record to have as you find yourself needing to refine or change the focus of your searching as your research develops. It can also improve the relevancy of results obtained as you have thought about keywords and synonyms and how these relate to each other. The following are suggested steps in retrieving (recover) information: i. Defining the information need and stating it as a question ii. Breaking the need into its component parts iii. Identifying synonyms and prioritising keywords iv. Searching specific sources v. Evaluating the information vi. Evaluating the search process (adapted from Constructing a Search Strategy, Duffel, 1995). i. Defining the information need and stating it as a question Start by expressing your information need in words. This will assist you in thinking about what you need and determining terms to be used later. You may need to consult dictionaries or encyclopedia to clarify the topic. ii Breaking the need into its component parts From the title and abstract of your topic it is possible to identify various concepts and keywords. A concept map / mind map is a useful way to plot ideas. For example: Title: Attitudes and levels of knowledge of Hepatitis B in Aboriginal women Description:

14

iii. Identifying synonyms and prioritising keywords At this stage you need to identify synonyms for the keywords and concepts you have previously developed . You should choose words that uniquely describe the topic, and you should also list words and concepts you do not want included. You may also need to think about the discipline area and database(s) you will be searching, as there may be a subject specific or database-specific thesaurus that will help you further identify keywords. One way of listing keywords and alternate terms is in a table. For example: Title: Some aspects of the lattice of all radical classes Description: Identify examples of pseudocomplements and complements in the lattice of all radical classes and its sublattice, the lattice of all hereditary radical classes, and describe explicitly radical classes complemented and pseudocomplemented in these structures.concept 1 associative ring concept 2 radical semisimple hereditary lower upper concept 3 lattice concept 4 complement pseudocomplement atom

15

iv. Searching specific sources Selection of an information source that best matches your information need is important. It will not matter how carefully you have thought out your keywords etc if you are not using an appropriate source. All libraries offer a range of sources. Infoguides are available in most libraries to give guidance as to the most appropriate source. CQU Library has a range of these subject area guides to help identify appropriate sources. It is also important that you ascertain the scope (content, years covered) of each source and learn the features (eg. is truncation used? is boolean logic supported? etc). It is well worth the effort of reading the help screens available on each information source and using the advanced searching tips usually available. While searching specific sources ascertain:o o

how much related literature is available how does the existing literature relate to your topic

v. Evaluating the information As sources are accessed and retrieved, look at each work closely. Read the abstract, introduction and conclusion. Before assessing the relevance of the item to your topic, it is vital that the scope, integrity and standing of the source is ascertained. As you retrieve sources: assess the standing of the author - is he/she an academic? a journalist? another student? a researcher? look at the date of publication - is the topic representative of thinking at that time? ascertain the intended audience - was the material written for a general audience? other researchers? particular groups with particular views? notice the writing style - is it conversational? academic? provocative? sensational? descriptive? look at the presentation - does the author use tables, graphs, diagrams, illustrations appropriately? are the descriptive details sufficient? refer to the bibliography and references - has the author referred to the the work of others? have all ideas been acknowledged and cited? are there any citations listed which would further your work? look at the type of publication and its' purpose - is it a scholarly journal? a popular journal? a refereed publication? a book? conference proceedings? identify the seminal works

16

As sources are selected and used, critically analyse the content. As you use resources: determine the facts / arguments / points of view look at any new findings - is there clear evidence to support each finding? o ascertain the reliability and accuracy of the document - are all assumptions valid? are there any flaws in the methodology? is the research based on established fact? o determine the significance of work - is it a landmark article? does it merely discuss what is already known? what does it contribute to accepted theory? o Ascertain the limitations, flaws, weaknesses, strengths and underlying assumptions of the analysis in relation to the related literature and current thought. o contextualize the work within the discipline - where does it fit? which thoughts and ideas relate/contradict/support current thought? o study the methodology - is it appropriate to the type of study?o o

Remember: bibliographies and references usually found in sources often prove useful when looking for further information. o it is useful to identify researchers who have worked in the selected field, ascertain exactly what they have done and if possible, contact them to discuss further ideas. o not all the required sources will be readily available - at some stage you will need to use document delivery services. o after your initial search you may find it useful to develop a current awareness system to keep you up to date with developments in the area.o

It is important to begin your research with a comprehensive (broad) search of the literature that is, an attempt to find absolutely everything that is related to your topic.

17

Getting the informationAs a researcher there is nothing quite so frustrating as having identified a publication of interest only to discover that a major challenge now lies ahead: how to get your hands on a copy.(Kaser, 1995, p.vii) Although an increasing number of databases now offer full text, a large number of sources only include the bibliographic citation (that is, the author and title of the article / chapter / paper / patent along with the title, volume and pages of the journal / book / conference). Some citations also include an abstract or short synopsis of the work. Until the documents themselves are as extensively accessible and readily available as the references to them, researchers will need to be aware of options for obtaining more than references. Document delivery options Ordering via the library - Contact your Faculty Liaison Librarian or the Document Delivery Officer to ascertain your privileges. Searching local resource centers - Public and special libraries, government departments and community organisations will often provide access to materials. Access to the catalogues of other university libraries is available via the CQU Library Webpage and often, reciprocal borrowing rights can be arranged. Commercial document vendors - There are a number of commercial vendors specialising in document delivery and these include Inside (British Library), Infotrieve, Document Solutions and IngentaConnect.

18

Organising information (information management)Early in your research select a strategy for managing your information. Whether it is via a manual card file, a list of references on a word processor, a computer cardfile or bibliographic formatting software such as Endnote it is vital that full citations be recorded accurately for later use. Everyone has experienced the frustration associated with not being able to locate a known reference when it is needed. It is also a good idea to be systematic with your approach to searching, Record your searches and the date they were done. This makes searches easier to update and reminds you which databases and sources retrieved useful information and which ones didn't.

19

Good organisation will ensure the plant has the opportunity to grow.

Positioning the literature reviewAim to: Understand and clarify the relationships between your research and the discipline/s. Place and justify your research within the discipline/s. Understand the existing literature and how it relates /supports/contradicts your topic.

Research can draw on the knowledge, culture, methodology and theories of a number of disciplines - the amount of interdisciplinary research has increased in recent years and all interdisciplinary ideas need to be discussed with your supervisor(s).

Writing the literature reviewWriting this section [the literature review] well is a sign of professional maturity; it indicates ones grasp of the field, ones methodological sophistication in critiquing others research, and the breadth and depth of ones reading. (Krathwohl 1988 p.4)

Tips and tricks from the expertsFrom Dr Tony Ward (Senior Lecturer in Marketing and Strategic Management, School of Marketing and Tourism)

20

keep complete and accurate records of everything read (especially references) identify referencing requirements and learn the style as soon as you can summarise every paper you read think holistically (get the big picture) do not be afraid to think 'outside the square' - it is your review so try to find your own insights rather than just copy previous work break the review into thematic sections, treat each thematic area as a 'mini' review

The aim of a literature review is to find the relevant literature and read it. However people often have trouble starting there so I would suggest that you: 1. identify parent disciplines 2. go to leading journals and search for the recent issues for the latest information on the topic area. Use the references in those articles, and for "snowballing" - bouncing back and going through the history of the topic area. 3. From these articles it is possible to recognise names that reappear. They are often the leading people in the field. This is necessary because when an examiner looks at a literature review they will expect to see certain names, leading names, and if they are not there you are not going to get the marks or approval. There are certain skills that are learnt from doing a literature review. These include: learning to identify a topic learning how to search literature and obtain legal copies of literature improving reading skills - in particular the skill of reading critically improving writing skills - academic writing is different in style to what you would use in business for example. learning to reference properly learning to place a topic within a discipline or framework learning to view a collection of papers holistically improving evaluative skills learning to identify research problems and gaps in literature. learning to focus a topic

Finally you obtain a detailed knowledge of the topic area and at the end of the day you should be regarded as the expert of that area in the world.

21

From Mr Aaron Coutts (Lecturer in Exercise Biochemistry, School of Health and Human Performance) While writing the discussion part of the literature review, defining your key points, keep the web browser open with SportDiscus (for example). So when you are looking for key points when writing, do a search to get the abstracts (in that key area). This helps formulate ideas. A great way of keeping rhythm going in your writing. From Dr Peter Reaburn (Triathlon Research Initiative, Head of School, School of Health and Human Performance) Students will get a pile of articles and will regurgitate what article one said, what article two said. I can't emphasise enough, a well written literature review must evaluate all the literature, must speak generally, with general concepts they have been able to lift from all the articles, and they must be able to evaluate and critically analyse each one, then link and make a flow of ideas. Rather than separate little boxes, each box representing an article, make a flow of ideas, generalise and use specifics from one or two articles to back up a statement. I think the student has gone to the supervisor generally because they see the supervisor as the expert, with some knowledge in the topic area. There will be journals the post graduate supervisor can identify and there will be names of researchers, either in journal articles or books. I think the supervisor has a major role in leading the student to the relevant literature. From Dr Daniela Stehlik (Associate Professor of Sociology, School of Psychology & Sociology) If you are reading something, take notes then and there. Don't think you will come back to it later, because you never do. take good notes keep your references write down the dates you took the notes keep a type of record eg. front page and abstract, or be like me a complete control freak and photocopy everything.

When writing the literature review. For students who haven't done any writing before, there are a number of texts (on writing theses) available at the library or from your supervisor. I would encourage students to do some drafting. The drafting process is tiresome and many students feel that they can do it in one sitting and that is why they leave it to the last minute. It is important to do several drafts and I would, as part of my

22

responsibility (as a supervisor), comment on these drafts, give feed back and we would discuss it and move on to the next version. From Associate Professor Graham Pegg (Associate Dean (Research), Faculty of Arts, Health & Science) I would recommend that a student develop a concept poster. ie. use a sheet of A3 paper and, for example use a herringbone structure, write keywords from a paper and the author. From there trace back the references. This helps to organise it all.

Frequently Asked QuestionsQ. What is the difference between a literature review and an annotated bibliography? An annotated bibliography doesn't require you to read the material at any depth. I have done a couple in my time and you really skim the material. At the end of the day you may only read the abstracts. People who read your literature review assume that you have read the material; and not only read it; but synthesised it and understood it; turned it into a tool for your own purposes, whatever your research may be. An annotated bibliography is a very useful secondary source for a literature review, so I see it as a step toward a literature review, but not the same as a literature review. (Daniella Stehlik) Q. When do you start your literature review? I insist that students start their literature review very early in the process. In fact, if I have a third or final year student wanting to do a masters or honours with me, I will encourage them, over the Christmas holidays before they enroll, to read widely and find out what is out there. (Peter Reaburn)

ReferencesIntroduction to Literature Review University of Minnesota 1998 http://edpa.coled.umn.edu/ip/readings/IntroLitReview/introlit.html Krathwohl, David R. How to prepare a research proposal : guidelines for funding and dissertations in the social and behavioral Syracuse, N.Y : Syracuse University Press, 1988. Madsen, D. 1992, Successful dissertations and theses, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. 23

Muskal, F 2000, Guidelines for the Literature Review Paper University of the Pacific http://jarl.cs.uop.edu/education/muskal/lit.html (accessed 13 November 2002) Taylor, Dena The literature review: a few tips on conducting it University of Toronto http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/litrev.html Part Four: Writing the Literature Review University Writing Center (UWC) University of Central Florida http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/%7Euwc/Grad %20Gateway/thesis_dissertation/tackling_thesis4.htm (accessed 13 November 2002)

http://www.library.cqu.edu.au/tutorials/litreviewpages/

24