SCE3106-Nota

MODUL (NAMA PENGKHUSUSAN)

PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU SEKOLAH RENDAH (PGSR)

MOD KURSUS DALAM CUTI

SCE 3106

WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURU KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA ARAS 1, ENTERPRISE BUILDING 3, BLOK 2200, JALAN PERSIARAN APEC, CYBER 6, 63000 CYBERJAYA

Berkuat kuasa pada Jun 2010

IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN DENGAN KEPUJIAN KEPUJIANKEPUJIAN

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Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan

Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah suatu usaha berterusan ke arah memperkembangkan lagi potensi individu secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan insan yang seimbang dan harmonis dari segi intelek, rohani, emosi, dan jasmani berdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan. Usaha ini adalah bagi melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmu pengetahuan, berketrampilan, berakhlak mulia, bertanggungjawab, dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan diri serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dan kemakmuran keluarga, masyarakat, dan negara.

Falsafah Pendidikan Guru

Guru yang berpekerti mulia, berpandangan progresif dan saintifik, bersedia menjunjung aspirasi negara serta menyanjung warisan kebudayaan negara, menjamin perkembangan individu, dan memelihara suatu masyarakat yang bersatu padu, demokratik, progresif, dan berdisiplin.

Cetakan Jun 2010 Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia

Hak cipta terpelihara. Kecuali untuk tujuan pendidikan yang tidak ada kepentingan komersial, tidak dibenarkan sesiapa mengeluarkan atau mengulang mana-mana bahagian artikel, ilustrasi dan kandungan buku ini dalam apa-apa juga bentuk dan dengan apa-apa cara pun, sama ada secara elektronik, fotokopi, mekanik, rakaman atau cara lain sebelum mendapat izin bertulis daripada Rektor Institut Pendidikan Guru, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.

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Cetakan Jun 2010 Institut Pendidikan Guru Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia

MODUL INI DIEDARKAN UNTUK KEGUNAAN PELAJAR-PELAJAR YANG BERDAFTAR DENGAN BAHAGIAN PENDIDIKAN GURU, KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA BAGI MENGIKUTI PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU SEKOLAH RENDAH (PGSR) IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN. MODUL INI HANYA DIGUNAKAN SEBAGAI BAHAN PENGAJARAN DAN

PEMBELAJARAN BAGI PROGRAM-PROGRAM TERSEBUT.

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National Education Philosophy i

Teachers Education Philosophy i

Preface v

Learning Guide vi

Introduction viii

Allocation of Topics ix

Learning Topics x

Topic 1 : Primary Science Teaching

1.1 Why should we teach science in

primary schools?

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Topic 2 : Acquiring manipulative skills

2.1 Types and units of measurements

2.2 Use and handle science apparatus

2.3 Draw diagrams and apparatus

accurately

2.4 Handling specimens correctly and

carefully

2.5 Clean science apparatus correctly

2.6 Store science apparatus and laboratory

substances correctly and safely.

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MUKA SURAT KANDUNGAN

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Topic 3 : Basic Science Process Skills

3.1 Observing

3.2 Classifying

3.3 Communicating

3.4 Predicting

3.5 Measuring and using numbers

3.6 Space-time relationship

3.7 Inferring

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Topic 4 : Integrated Science Process

Skills

4.1 Identifying and controlling variables

4.2 Defining operationally

4.3 Interpreting data

4.4 Formulating and testing hypothesis

4.5 Experimenting

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Biblography 147

Panel of Module Writers 149

Module Icons 152

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LEARNING GUIDE This module has been prepared to assist you in organising your own learning so that you may learn more effectively. You may be returning to study after many years from formal education or you may possibly be unfamiliar with a self-directed learning mode. It gives you an opportunity to manage your own learning and to manage the way in which you use your resources and time. Self-directed learning requires that you make decisions about your own learning. You must recognise your own pattern and style of learning. It might be useful if you were to set your own personal study goals and standard of achievement. In this way you will be able to proceed through the course quite easily. Asking for help when you need it, ought to be viewed as creating new opportunities for learning rather than as a sign of weakness. The module is written in topics. How long you take to go through a topic clearly depends on your own learning style and your personal study goals. There are tasks set within a topic to help you recall what you have learnt or to make you think about what you have read. You should bear in mind that the process of learning that you go through is as important as any assignment you hand in or any task that you have completed. So, instead of racing through the task and the reading, do take time to reflect on them. Create a portfolio and keep all the written answers to the tasks in the module in it. The portfolio should be updated from time to time with reading materials or resources that show your efforts in completing the given tasks in the module. You will find that icons have been used to capture your attention so that at a glance you will know what you have to do. An explanation of what the icons mean is shown in the appendix. There will be an examination at the end of the course. The date and time will be made known to you when you sign up for the course.

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Here are some useful tips to get you going. 1. Find a quiet study corner so that you may settle down with your study materials to

study. Do the same when you are in the library.

2. Set a time every day to begin and to end your study. Once you have committed to a set time, keep to it! When you have finished your module, continue to read the recommended books or other resource materials.

3. Spend as much time as you possibly can on each task without compromising your

study goal. 4. Take time to revise and review what you have read. 5. Start a portfolio to document what you have read and done. 6. Find a friend who could help you study.

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INTRODUCTION

This module is prepared to complement the face-to-face teaching of the course unit

SCE 3106 Working and Thinking Scientifically for the Primary School Teachers

Graduate Programme. It is written as a learning module to guide you in your studies

based on the self-managed learning concept. It consists of five topics that explore the

following topics:

Topic 1: Primary Science Teaching

Topic 2: Acquiring Manipulative Skills

Topic 3: Basic Science Process Skills

Topic 4: Integrated Science Process Skills

For each topic, you will acquire knowledge and skills as stated in the learning

outcomes. This module contains reflective questions, tasks and exercises to assess

your mastery of the knowledge. It is hoped that through this module, you will be well

informed of issues related to science curriculum and implementation, our science

curriculum and the inquiry and discovery approach. Besides studying the materials in

this module on your own, you are encouraged to refer to other sources of information

for further understanding.

Happy studying!

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ALLOCATION OF TOPICS User Guide

The content of this module will replace one credit which is equivalent to fifteen hours face-to-face interaction. The table below will clarify the allocation of topics for face-to-face interaction or learning by module. (Allocation of topics by face-to-face interaction and module based on the course pro forma)

Bil.

Title/Topic

Face-to-Face

Interaction (hour)

Module (hour)

Total Hour

1 Primary Science Teaching

Why should we teach science in primary schools?

2 1 3

2 Acquiring manipulative skills:

Types and units of measurements

Use and handle science apparatus

Draw diagrams and apparatus accurately

2 1 3

3 Acquiring manipulative skills:

Handling specimens correctly and carefully

Clean science apparatus correctly

Store science apparatus and laboratory substances correctly and safely

2 1 3

4 The Basic Science Process Skills:

Observing

2 1 3


Classifying

2 1 3


Communicating

2 1 3

7 The Basic Science Process Skills

Measuring and using numbers

2 1 3


Space-time relationship

2 1 3

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Bil.

Title/Topic

Face-to-Face

Interaction (hour)

Module (hour)

Total Hour


Predicting

2 1 3


Inferring

2 1 3

11 Integrated Science Process Skills

Identifying and controlling variables

2 1 3


Defining operationally

2 1 3


Interpreting Data

2 1 3


Formulating and testing hypothesis

2 1 3

15 Integrated Science Process Skill

Experimenting

2 1 3

Total 30 15 45

SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

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TOPIC 1 Primary Science Teaching

SYNOPSIS This topic discusses about the teaching of science in primary schools. It explains the aims of science teaching and emphasizes the components in primary science curriculum.

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic teachers will able to : 1. Explain the aims of teaching science in primary schools.

2. List down the components that are emphasized in the

teaching of science curriculum in primary schools.

TOPIC’S FRAMEWORK

PRIMARY SCIENCE

TEACHING

AIMS OF SCIENCE

TEACHING

EMPHASIS IN

PRIMARY SCIENCE

SCIENTIFIC LITERACY

PROFESIONALS

IN SCIENCE

SCIENCE CONCEPTS

SCIENTIFIC AND

THINKING SKILLS

SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES

AND NOBLES VALUES


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CONTENTS 1.0 WHY SHOULD WE TEACH SCIENCE IN PRIMARY

SCHOOLS?

The two main general goals of science education in primary

schools are:

i. To inculcate scientific literacy so that people can make

sensible decisions about science related issues that

affect their lives.

ii. To produce competent professionals in the various

scientific disciplines.

Scientific literacy is the capacity to use scientific knowledge, to

identify questions and to draw evidence-based conclusions in

order to understand and helps to make decisions about natural

world and the changes made to it through human activities.

Scientific literacy will help the population to:

i. develop effective solutions to problems

ii. foster intelligent respect for nature

iii. avoid being prey to dogmatists

iv. assess use of new technologies.

Embodied in Vision 2020 is the challenge to establish a

scientific and progressive society, a society that is innovative

and forward-looking. The challenge is also to establish a society

that is not only acts as consumer of technology but also as a

contributor to the scientific and technological civilization of the

future as well. Our primary science curriculum is developed in

line with this vision.

Malaysian primary science curriculum aims to develop pupils‘

interest and creativity through everyday experiences and

investigations that promote the acquisition of scientific and

thinking skills as well as the inculcation of scientific attitudes and


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noble values. The Primary Science curriculum is designed to

stimulate pupils‘ curiosity and develop their interest as well as

enable pupils to learn more about themselves and the world

around them through pupil-centered activities. This will provide

the pupils with experiences to build their interest in science and

opportunities to acquire scientific and thinking skills.

‖The emphasis of the Malaysian primary science

curriculum are learning through experience relevant to pupils‟

daily lives, developing scientific and thinking skills, applying

scientific principles and inculating scientific attitudes and noble

values. ‖ (Yeoh P.C. & Gan C.M. 2003 p22)

Science exploration for children is science inquiry – exploring

materials/events, asking questions, investigating,

recording/representing their work, reflecting on what they have

done and what it means – allowing them to create new theories

or ideas about how the world works. These skills, attitudes, and

ways of thinking are important to many areas of learning

throughout life. In primary schools, pupils are learning scientific

skills because:

o They are the methods used by scientists in investigating

and constructing answers to questions about the natural

world. Through using the process skills pupils learn

science in a manner similar to the way scientists conduct

their investigations.

o Meaningful learning takes place when pupils are using

process skills to explore the environment and to acquire

and interpret information, leading to the construction of

their own knowledge.

o They are not only useful in science learning but are also

applicable across disciplines and experiences and thus,


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useful in making personal decisions and in solving

problems.

o Scientific theories and principles may be modified or

replaced when found to be inconsistent with new

evidence. Unlike scientific knowledge, process skills do

not become obsolete.

(Wan Yoke Kum et. al, 2003 p 33)

Teaching scientific skills should be integrated into the science

content. The science process skills need to be taught explicitly

at the initial stage and reinforced through further practice. The

skills should be introduced in progression to match the stages of

cognitive development in pupils. At level one, pupils are

expected to learn basic process skills. Whereas for level two

pupils, the basic process skills will continue to be reinforced and

developed further while integrated process skills are introduced.

Tutorial 1

By referring to the article ―Higher Order Thinking‖ discuss how we implement HOTS in Primary Science teaching.

Tutorial 2

Discuss how ―Ten Myths of Science‖ opens up your minds about the misconceptions that you might have. Give an example of a misconception that portrays each myth.

Give the benefits of scientific literacy to the world population


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Skamp, K. (Ed.), (2004) Teaching primary science constructively (2nd ed.).Melbourne, Australia: Thomson Learning.

Find the 5-E instructional Model and prepare a ppt. presentation.


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Tutorial 1 Higher order thinking Russell Tytler, March 28, 2004 There is a lot of focus currently on the notion of higher order thinking, particularly in relation to the Middle Years concerns, focusing on engaging students in meaningful learning. Terms such as the ‗Thinking Curriculum‘ are used to describe a school focus on deeper level ideas. Higher order thinking is used as a term to describe a number of related ideas, all essentially held to be in contrast to rote learning, learning of facts, superficial thinking etc. Schemes such Bloom‘s taxonomy have been used to order knowledge forms in a hierarchy, with information at the bottom (Bloom called it ‗knowledge‘ but the term tends to have a wider meaning these days), then comprehension, then higher levels such as application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The ‗three tiered intellect‘ uses similar terms, with higher order thinking being associated with words such as interprets, analyses, reflects, evaluates…. Also associated with higher level thinking are dimensions of creativity, or divergent thinking. Emphasising, in science tasks, such things as creativity, imagination, flexibility all aim at developing in students a capacity to think through ideas and apply them to a range of contexts, to think ‗outside the square‘ and to think critically. Higher level thinking is also associated with investigative practices in science, and with problem solving. Such behaviours and knowledge as asking investigable questions, designing investigations or measurement procedures, critically evaluating evidence, thinking of ways to test ideas etc. are all part of what we would hope an engaged and resourceful student to be doing. The first two SIS Components of effective teaching and learning are closely related to higher level thinking. These are given below, with links to the science education literature. 1. Encouraging students to actively engage with ideas and evidence Component 1 is a key characteristic of effective teaching and learning. It is linked with a number of important ideas that appear in the science education research literature, and in curriculum and innovation change projects. The key idea embodied in this Component is that real learning is an active process that involves students being challenged, and


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challenging each other, rather than accepting received wisdom and practicing its application. A predominant image projected by this Component is thus one of the active, searching mind. The underlying logic of this Component is consistent with constructivist insights into learning. This does not in any way diminish, however, the role of the teacher. If anything it makes teachers‘ roles more complex and difficult, in asking them to encourage students to express their ideas, but to maintain a high standard of challenge and attention to evidence based on scientific traditions. The Component combines two ideas — that learning involves activity and engagement, and that scientific processes fundamentally involve argument from evidence. It is hard, in a practising science classroom situation, to separate these notions.

Related ideas in the science education literature: Sharing intellectual control, or student centredness — The idea that students‘ ideas be treated with respect is well established in research on students‘ conceptions and research on learning in science. The Monash University Extended PD materials, now embedded within the SISPD program, emphasised this control aspect. One cannot expect students to be engaged with a pre-packaged program entirely dictated by teachers‘ understandings, and this Component asks that teachers take some risks in acknowledging that students, if they are to learn, must be given a measure of control over the ideas that are discussed. Inquiry based learning — This is a term much in vogue in the U.S., implying that science teaching and learning must be based on students actively exploring and investigating and questioning. This is different to ‗discovery learning‘ which, in its pure form, implied somehow that students could learn science simply by undertaking appropriate practical investigations, and under-represented the critical role of the teacher in structuring and responding to student experiences. A related phrase often used in primary science education is ‗hands-on, minds-on‘ science. It is the ‗minds-on‘ part that is referred to by this Component. Student autonomy, and responsibility for learning — These ideas emphasise both the active and intentional nature of learning and the purpose of schooling in promoting autonomous adults. Engagement is a prior condition for both. The Middle Years concern with student engagement with ideas and with schooling is also linked to this Component. The Component should not be thought about, however, simply in terms of motivation or a willingness to join in. It focuses clearly on ideas. Maximising student-student interaction — A video study of mathematics and science teachers (Clark, 2001) found that the key determinant of a rich learning environment was the amount of high


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quality student – student dialogue. This could be taken as one of the critical features of engagement with ideas. Community of learners — This idea of a class or group as a community dedicated to particular forms of learning sits comfortably with Component 1, since ‗engagement with ideas and evidence‘ can be interpreted as a communal enterprise. Social constructivism, or socio cultural theory, is also linked with this idea. Argumentation — there is growing interest in idea that the ability to frame and respond to argument is an important focus for science education. Science as it is practised in the community is characterized by argument based on evidence. Science processes and concepts of evidence — The teaching of science processes has a long history in science education. These are sometimes called ‗skills‘, but in fact there is a good deal of knowledge associated with things like experimental design, measurement principles, or analysis. Evidence is handled in science in particular ways (eg. principles of sampling, or variable control, or measurement procedures) and learning how this occurs in a more formal way is a part of this first Component. The teaching and learning focus associated with this would include being taught how to do things like sample biological data, control variables, set up tables, deal with measurement error etc. These may be taught explicitly, but teaching for an understanding of the way evidence is used would imply that students need to learn to make decisions about design, measurement and analysis. Open ended investigations form an important end of the practical work spectrum. 2. Challenging students to develop meaningful understandings Component 2 raises the questions „what does it mean to understand something in science‟, and „what is meaningful?‘ Neither are straightforward questions. The teachers who were originally interviewed to develop the Components talked of deeper level understandings, or understandings that would be revisited in different situations to enrich and challenge.

Related ideas in the science education literature:

Student conceptions — The research into student conceptions shows clearly that students come to any science topic with prior ideas that will often contradict the science version of understanding, that can interfere with learning. Learning, and gaining understanding should be viewed often as a shift in perspective rather than something implanted over nothing. The conceptual change literature, which emphasises probes of understanding, and challenge activities, is thus relevant to this Component. Lesson and topic structure becomes important for the development of understanding.


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Metacognition — The work of the PEEL project has important links to this Component, focusing on student learning strategies, and control over learning. If students are to establish deeper level understandings they need to be helped to develop good learning habits, and to monitor the adequacy of their own understandings. These ideas underlie the ‗thinking curriculum‘ focus of some of the Middle Years projects. Higher order thinking — Many writers have made the distinction between shallow and deep, or low and higher order thinking. Bloom‘s taxonomy identified higher order thinking as associated with the application and evaluation of ideas. Ideas such as the ‗three story intellect‘ attempt a similar hierarchy. Deeper or wider? — A commitment to looking below the surface is one way of describing this Component. Another aspect of meaningful understandings is the insight that ideas are tools to be applied rather than concepts to be arrived at. The ability to use an idea in interpreting the world is a critical part of understanding. Divergent thinking — Part of what a ‗meaningful understanding‘ should be involves the ability to use it to solve unexpected problems, or to generate a variety of related ideas. The ability to think divergently or laterally is part of what a ‗meaningful understanding‘ is. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) — In order to support students in developing understandings, it is essential for teachers to be knowledgeable themselves (content knowledge), not so they can ‗tell‘, but so they can listen and challenge. The other form of knowledge needed is that of how students learn particular concepts – the difficulties they experience and the different ways they may interpret the science idea. We call this PCK. Improving Middle Years Mathematics and Science: Components relevant to Higher Order thinking Recently (in early 2004) we have been engaged in developing a set of Components of effective teaching and learning in mathematics and science, and examples to support two components dealing with higher order thinking are given below. 3. Students are challenged to extend their understandings Students engage with conceptually challenging content such that they develop higher order understandings of key ideas and processes.


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3.1 Subject matter is conceptually complex and intriguing, but accessible

3.2 Tasks challenge students to explore, question and reflect on key ideas

3.3 The teacher clearly signals high expectations for each student

This Component is demonstrated when: • Students are challenged to reflect on their response to tasks • Open questions are asked that call for interpretive responses • The teacher poses questions and hypothetical situations to move students beyond superficial approaches • Students are asked to represent their understandings in a variety of ways

• Including frequent open ended problems and explorations

• The teacher provides experiences and poses questions that challenge students‘ understandings, and encourages them to apply ideas to unfamiliar situations

• Stimulus materials are provided that challenge students‘ ideas and encourage discussion and ongoing exploration

• Historical case studies are used to explore how major science ideas developed

• Higher order tasks involving the generation, application, analysis and synthesis of ideas, are well represented, for example, by the teacher using Bloom‘s taxonomy in planning.

• Students are provided with questions or challenges as the impetus for learning and encouraging and supporting students to construct their own responses to such questions

• Open-ended problems or tasks are set that require divergent responses and provide the opportunity for solutions of differing kinds to be developed.

• Students are encouraged to examine critically and even challenge information provided by the teacher, a textbook, a newspaper, etc.

• The teacher sets learning challenges that require students to analyse, evaluate and create


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• The teacher uses higher order thinking tools when planning activities to allow for multiple entry points and to develop higher order thinking skills such as synthesis, evaluation etc.

The Component is NOT demonstrated when:

• Investigations or projects run without significant class discussion of the underlying science.

• Class activities which are fun, with surprising outcomes, but without follow up of ideas in subsequent lessons, or framing of the ideas behind the activities.

• Science concepts are treated as ‗things to be learnt‘, emphasising formal definitions.

• There is a presumption that it is the teacher‘s role to control what is to be learnt, and how it is to be learnt.

• Classroom work is constrained or recipe like, without room for discussion or debate of purpose or methods

• Lesson plans contain too much material to allow sustained discussions in response to student questions

• Activities focus on having fun without a real focus on conceptual understandings

5. Students are encouraged to see themselves as mathematical and scientific thinkers

5.1 Students are explicitly supported to engage with the processes of open-ended investigation and problem solving This Component is demonstrated when:

• The teacher plans to strategically build opportunities for students to develop hypotheses in practical work, and to extend and question interpretations

• The teacher encourages students to raise questions in class, arising out of observations, or experience.

• Students are encouraged to make decisions in practical investigations concerning hypotheses to be explored, experimental design, measurement and recording techniques, analysis and interpretation.

This component is NOT demonstrated when:


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• Students are given a choice of investigations to carry out, but without training in appropriate experimental techniques and with no group commitment to the ideas being tested.

• A class experiment focuses on control of variables (fair testing) without a clear conceptual proposition. For instance, the permeability of sand, loam and clay soil is tested, with attention paid to controlling for water, amount of soil, technique, but without discussing the purpose or the reasons why they might differ.

• Practical work is recipe-like, without room for discussion and debate of purpose, methods, analysis.

5.2 Students engage in mathematical/scientific reasoning and argumentation

This sub-component is demonstrated when:

• Stimulus materials are provided that challenge students‘ ideas and encouraging discussion, speculation, and ongoing exploration

• Time is allowed for discussions to arise naturally and be followed in class, and encouraging investigations to resolve questions

• The teacher shares intellectual control with students

• The learning program includes frequent open ended investigations or short-term open explorations

• The teacher encourages discussion of evidence, including disconfirming evidence such as anomalies in experimental work, in text book explanations, in observations, or in public reports of science

• The teacher provides students with questions or challenges as the impetus for learning and encourages and supports students to construct their own responses to such questions

• Students are encouraged to challenge or support or amplify others‘ contributions.

The sub-component is NOT demonstrated when:

ß There is a strong focus on ensuring content coverage, as distinct from understanding


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ß Lesson plans are strictly followed, with too much material to be covered to allow divergent discussions in response to student questions or comments.

ß Students work mainly individually, with not much whole-class or small- group discussion.

ß Class discussion is dominated by the teacher‘s voice.

ß Teacher questions are mainly closed, with a particular response in mind.

ß There is a strong focus on ensuring content coverage, as distinct from understanding.

ß Intellectual control is firmly maintained by the teacher.

Examples to illustrate the Component:

ß The history of science ideas is strongly represented. Eg. A science topic on disease focuses on the history of our understanding of the bacterial nature of infection, to emphasise the power of science insights, and the way evidence is used to test and verify theories in science.

ß Attention is paid to the processes of hypothesis generation and experimental design Eg. Yvonne ran an animal behaviour unit for her Year 1 class. They discussed, using observations of a classroom pet rat, the difference between observation and inference. They learnt the technique of time sampling of animal position and behaviour using birds in a cage, and one, then two rats in an enclosure. Following discussions about the survival implications of behaviour, they then examined crickets and came up with a class list of questions about cricket behaviour, or structure and function. Pairs of students designed, carried out and reported on a chosen question, using a template that required presentation of data in two formats, and an evaluation of the generality of the findings. The focus in the discussion continually referred back to the adaptive purpose of particular behaviours. Eg. Year 10 students studying genetics investigate recent claims there has been cross-breeding of genetically modified soy into local crops. They look at the suggested mechanism for cross-pollination, and study genetic techniques, to come up with suggestions about what controls should be in place.

ß Planning is flexible enough so that student ideas and questions can be genuinely followed up, perhaps by further investigation. Eg. Julie‘s Year 4 class raised the question about how long a ballpoint pen would last. They discussed how you


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would find out, then arranged a comparative investigation with different brands, measuring the length of line with appropriate controls. Eg. During a genetics unit, the question of genetically modified food captures student interest and leads to a debate informed by independent research using the web.

ß Anomalous results from experiments are discussed openly in the class. Eg. Craig‘s Year 8 class found an experiment culturing bacteria gave anomalous results. Before handing the cultures back to groups he displayed them, then led a discussion in which they discussed the surprise results to come up with some possible reasons and an evaluation of the adequacy of the controls they had put in place. Eg. A class uses de Bono‘s thinking hats technique to fully explore the greenhouse effect. Eg. A unit is planned using the ‗interactive approach‘, whereby students‘ questions are discussed and refined to form the basis of investigations forming the core of the unit.

ß Current issues are discussed in class, which encourage students to raise questions about evidence, or the ideas underlying such issues. Eg. Methods of responding to a contemporary outbreak of foot and mouth are discussed and debated, using newspaper analyses. Eg. The nutritional value of children‘s lunches is discussed, using evidence from a resource book on dietary principles. Eg. In a unit on road safety, evidence related to the wearing of seat belts, or of bicycle helmets, is debated in the context of public policy.

• Open-ended tasks are set that encourage divergent, creative thinking Eg. Students are asked to use their science understandings to design a system, or technological device, such as an automated plant nursery, or method of analysing the movement of a netball player. Eg. Students are challenged using ‗what would happen if..‘ questions (If gravity on earth was stronger, if we could clone dinosaurs…), or take place in ‗hypotheticals‘.


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Tutorial 2 TEN MYTHS OF SCIENCE: REEXAMINING WHAT WE THINK WE KNOW... W. McComas 1996 This article addresses and attempts to refute several of the most widespread and enduring misconceptions held by students regarding the enterprise of science. The ten myths discussed include the common notions that theories become laws, that hypotheses are best characterized as educated guesses, and that there is a commonly-applied scientific method. In addition, the article includes discussion of other incorrect ideas such as the view that evidence leads to sure knowledge, that science and its methods provide absolute proof, and that science is not a creative endeavor. Finally, the myths that scientists are objective, that experiments are the sole route to scientific knowledge and that scientific conclusions are continually reviewed conclude this presentation. The paper ends with a plea that instruction in and opportunities to experience the nature of science are vital in preservice and inservice teacher education programs to help unseat the myths of science. Myths are typically defined as traditional views, fables, legends or stories. As such, myths can be entertaining and even educational since they help people make sense of the world. In fact, the explanatory role of myths most likely accounts for their development, spread and persistence. However, when fact and fiction blur, myths lose their entertainment value and serve only to block full understanding. Such is the case with the myths of science. Scholar Joseph Campbell (1968) has proposed that the similarity among many folk myths worldwide is due to a subconscious link between all peoples, but no such link can explain the myths of science. Misconceptions about science are most likely due to the lack of philosophy of science content in teacher education programs, the failure of such programs to provide and require authentic science experiences for preservice teachers and the generally shallow treatment of the nature of science in the precollege textbooks to which teachers might turn for guidance. As Steven Jay Gould points out in The Case of the Creeping Fox Terrier Clone (1988), science textbook writers are among the most egregious purveyors of myth and inaccuracy. The fox terrier mentioned in the title refers to the classic comparison used to express the size of the dawn horse, the tiny precursor to the modem horse. This comparison is unfortunate for two reasons. Not only was this horse ancestor much bigger than a fox terrier, but the fox terrier breed of dog is virtually unknown to American students. The major criticism leveled by Gould is that once this comparison took hold, no one bothered to check its validity or utility. Through time, one author after another simply repeated the inept comparison and continued a tradition that has made many science texts virtual clones of each other on this and countless other points.


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In an attempt to provide a more realistic view of science and point out issues on which science teachers should focus, this article presents and discusses 10 widely-held, yet incorrect ideas about the nature of science. There is no implication that all students, or most teachers for that matter, hold all of these views to be true, nor is the list meant to be the definitive catolog. Cole (1986) and Rothman (1992) have suggested additional misconceptions worthy of consideration. However, years of science teaching and the review of countless texts has substantiated the validity of the inventory presented here. Myth 1: Hypotheses become theories which become laws This myth deals with the general belief that with increased evidence there is a developmental sequence through which scientific ideas pass on their way to final acceptance. Many believe that scientific ideas pass through the hypothesis and theory stages and finally mature as laws. A former U.S. president showed his misunderstanding of science by saying that he was not troubled by the idea of evolution because it was "just a theory." The president's misstatement is the essence of this myth; that an idea is not worthy of consideration until "lawness" has been bestowed upon it. The problem created by the false hierarchical nature inherent in this myth is that theories and laws are very different kinds of knowledge. Of course there is a relationship between laws and theories, but one simply does not become the other--no matter how much empirical evidence is amassed. Laws are generalizations, principles or patterns in nature and theories are the explanations of those generalizations (Rhodes & Schaible, 1989; Homer & Rubba, 1979; Campbell, 1953). For instance, Newton described the relationship of mass and distance to gravitational attraction between objects with such precision that we can use the law of gravity to plan spaceflights. During the Apollo 8 mission, astronaut Bill Anders responded to the question of who was flying the spacecraft by saying, "I think that Issac Newton is doing most of the driving fight now." (Chaikin, 1994, p. 127). His response was understood by all to mean that the capsule was simply following the basic laws of physics described by Isaac Newton years centuries earlier. The more thorny, and many would say more interesting, issue with respect to gravity is the explanation for why the law operates as it does. At this point, there is no well. accepted theory of gravity. Some physicists suggest that gravity waves are the correct explanation for the law of gravity, but with clear confirmation and consensus lacking, most feel that the theory of gravity still eludes science. Interestingly, Newton addressed the distinction between law and theory with respect to gravity. Although he had discovered the law of gravity, he refrained from speculating publically about its cause. In Principial, Newton states" . . . I have not been able to discover the cause of those properties of gravity from phenomena, and I frame no hypothesis . . ." " . . . it is enough that gravity does really exist, and act according to the laws which we have explained . . ." (Newton, 1720/1946, p. 547).


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Myth 2: A hypothesis is an educated guess The definition of the term hypothesis has taken on an almost mantra- like life of its own in science classes. If a hypothesis is always an educated guess as students typically assert, the question remains, "an educated guess about what?" The best answer for this question must be, that without a clear view of the context in which the term is used, it is impossible to tell. The term hypothesis has at least three definitions, and for that reason, should be abandoned, or at least used with caution. For instance, when Newton said that he framed no hypothesis as to the cause of gravity he was saying that he had no speculation about an explanation of why the law of gravity operates as it does. In this case, Newton used the term hypothesis to represent an immature theory. As a solution to the hypothesis problem, Sonleitner (1989) suggested that tentative or trial laws be called generalizing hypotheses with provisional theories referred to as explanatory hypotheses. Another approach would be to abandon the word hypothesis altogether in favor of terms such as speculative law or speculative theory. With evidence, generalizing hypotheses may become laws and speculative theories become theories, but under no circumstances do theories become laws. Finally, when students are asked to propose a hypothesis during a laboratory experience, the term now means a prediction. As for those hypotheses that are really forecasts, perhaps they should simply be called what they are, predictions. Myth 3: A general and universal scientific method exists The notion that a common series of steps is followed by all research scientists must be among the most pervasive myths of science given the appearance of such a list in the introductory chapters of many precollege science texts. This myth has been part of the folklore of school science ever since its proposal by statistician Karl Pearson (1937). The steps listed for the scientific method vary from text to text but usually include, a) define the problem, b) gather background information, c) form a hypothesis, d) make observations, e) test the hypothesis, and f) draw conclusions. Some texts conclude their list of the steps of the scientific method by listing communication of results as the final ingredient. One of the reasons for the widespread belief in a general scientific method may be the way in which results are presented for publication in research journals. The standardized style makes it appear that scientists follow a standard research plan. Medawar (1990) reacted to the common style exhibited by research papers by calling the scientific paper a fraud since the final journal report rarely outlines the actual way in which the problem was investigated. Philosophers of science who have studied scientists at work have shown that no research method is applied universally (Carey, 1994; Gibbs & Lawson, 1992; Chalmers, 1990; Gjertsen, 1989). The notion of a single scientific method is so pervasive it seems certain that many students must be disappointed when they discover that scientists do not have a framed


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copy of the steps of the scientific method posted high above each laboratory workbench. Close inspection will reveal that scientists approach and solve problems with imagination, creativity, prior knowledge and perseverance. These, of course, are the same methods used by all problem-solvers. The lesson to be learned is that science is no different from other human endeavors when puzzles are investigated. Fortunately, this is one myth that may eventually be displaced since many newer texts are abandoning or augmenting the list in favor of discussions of methods of science. Myth 4: Evidence accumulated carefully will result in sure knowledge All investigators, including scientists, collect and interpret empirical evidence through the process called induction. This is a technique by which individual pieces of evidence are collected and examined until a law is discovered or a theory is invented. Useful as this technique is, even a preponderance of evidence does not guarantee the production of valid knowledge because of what is called the problem of induction. Induction was first formalized by Frances Bacon in the 17th century. In his book, Novum Organum (1620/ 1952), Bacon advised that facts be assimilated without bias to reach a conclusion. The method of induction he suggested is the principal way in which humans traditionally have produced generalizations that permit predictions. What then is the problem with induction? It is both impossible to make all observations pertaining to a given situation and illogical to secure all relevant facts for all time, past, present and future. However, only by making all relevant observations throughout all time, could one say that a final valid conclusion had been made. This is the problem of induction. On a personal level, this problem is of little consequence, but in science the problem is significant. Scientists formulate laws and theories that are supposed to hold true in all places and for all time but the problem of induction makes such a guarantee impossible. The proposal of a new law begins through induction as facts are heaped upon other relevant facts. Deduction is useful in checking the validity of a law. For example, if we postulate that all swans are white, we can evaluate the law by predicting that the next swan found will also be white. If it is, the law is supported, but not proved as will be seen in the discussion of another science myth. Locating even a single black swan will cause the law to be called into question. The nature of induction itself is another interesting aspect associated with this myth. If we set aside the problem of induction momentarily, there is still the issue of how scientists make the final leap from the mass of evidence to the conclusion. In an idealized view of induction, the accumulated evidence will simply result in the production of a new law or theory in a procedural or mechanical fashion. In reality, there is no such method. The issue is far more complex – and interesting --than that. The final creative leap from


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evidence to scientific knowledge is the focus of another myth of science. Myth 5: Science and its methods provide absolute proof The general success of the scientific endeavor suggests that its products must be valid. However, a hallmark of scientific knowledge is that it is subject to revision when new information is presented. Tentativeness is one of the points that differentiates science from other forms of knowledge. Accumulated evidence can provide support, validation and substantiation for a law or theory, but will never prove those laws and theories to be true. This idea has been addressed by Homer and Rubba (1978) and Lopnshinsky (1993). The problem of induction argues against proof in science, but there is another element of this myth worth exploring. In actuality, the only truly conclusive knowledge produced by science results when a notion is falsified. What this means is that no matter what scientific idea is considered, once evidence begins to accumulate, at least we know that the notion is untrue. Consider the example of the white swans discussed earlier. One could search the world and see only white swans, and arrive at the generalization that "all swans are white. " However, the discovery of one black swan has the potential to overturn, or at least result in modifications of, this proposed law of nature. However, whether scientists routinely try to falsify their notions and how much contrary evidence it takes for a scientist's mind to change are issues worth exploring. Myth 6: Science is procedural more than creative We accept that no single guaranteed method of science can account for the success of science, but realize that induction, the collection and interpretation of individual facts providing the raw materials for laws and theories, is at the foundation of most scientific endeavors. This awareness brings with it a paradox. If induction itself is not a guaranteed method for arriving at conclusions, how do scientists develop useful laws and theories? Induction makes use of individual facts that are collected, analyzed and examined. Some observers may perceive a pattern in these data and propose a law in response, but there is no logical or procedural method by which the pattern is suggested. With a theory, the issue is much the same. Only the creativity of the individual scientist permits the discovery of laws and the invention of theories. If there truly was a single scientific method, two individuals with the same expertise could review the same facts and reach identical conclusions. There is no guarantee of this because the range and nature of creativity is a personal attribute. Unfortunately, many common science teaching orientations and methods serve to work against the creative element in science. The majority of laboratory exercises, for instance, are verification activities. The teacher discusses what will happen in the laboratory, the manual provides step-bystep directions, and the student is expected to arrive at a particular answer. Not only is this approach the antithesis of the way in which science actually operates, but such a portrayal must seem dry,


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clinical and uninteresting to many students. In her book, They're Not Dumb, They're Different (1990) Shiela Tobias argues that many capable and clever students reject science as a career because they are not given an opportunity to see it as an exciting and creative pursuit. The moral in Tobias' thesis is that science itself may be impoverished when students who feel a need for a creative outlet eliminate it as a potential career because of the way it is taught. Myth 7: Science and its methods can answer all questions. Philosophers of science have found it useful to refer to the work of Karl Popper (1968) and his principle of falsifiability to provide an operational definition of science. Popper believed that only those ideas that are potentially falsifiable are scientific ideas. For instance, the law of gravity states that more massive objects exert a stronger gravitational attraction than do objects with less mass when distance is held constant. This is a scientific law because it could be falsified if newly-discovered objects operate differently with respect to gravitational attraction. In contrast, the core idea among creationists is that species were place on earth fully-formed by some supernatural entity. Obviously, there is no scientific method by which such a belief could be shown to be false. Since this special creation view is impossible to falsify, it is not science at all and the term creation science is an oxymoron. Creation science is a religious belief and as such, does not require that it be falsifiable. Hundreds of years ago thoughtful theologians and scientists carved out their spheres of influence and have since coexisted with little acrimony. Today, only those who fail to understand the distinction between science and religion confuse the rules, roles, and limitations of these two important world views. It should now be clear that some questions simply must not be asked of scientists. During a recent creation science trial for instance, Nobel laureates were asked to sign a statement about the nature of science to provide some guidance to the court. These famous scientists responded resoundingly to support such a statement; after all they were experts in the realm of science (Klayman, Slocombe, Lehman, & Kaufman, 1986). Later, those interested in citing expert opinion in the abortion debate asked scientists to issue a statement regarding their feelings on this issue. Wisely, few participated. Science cannot answer the moral and ethical questions engendered by the matter of abortion. Of course, scientists as individuals have personal opinions about many issues, but as a group, they must remain silent if those issues are outside the realm of scientific inquiry. Science simply cannot address moral, ethical, aesthetic, social and metaphysical questions. Myth 8. Scientists are particularly objective Scientists are no different in their level of objectivity than are other professionals. They are careful in the analysis of evidence and in the procedures applied to arrive at conclusions. With this admission, it may seem that this myth is valid, but contributions from both the philosophy


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of science and psychology reveal that there are at least three major reasons that make complete objectivity impossible. Many philosophers of science support Popper's (1963) view that science can advance only through a string of what he called conjectures and refutations. In other words, scientists should propose laws and theories as conjectures and then actively work to disprove or refute those ideas. Popper suggests that the absence of contrary evidence, demonstrated through an active program of refutation, will provide the best support available. It may seem like a strange way of thinking about verification, but the absence of disproof is considered support. There is one major problem with the idea of conjecture and refutation. Popper seems to have proposed it as a recommendation for scientists, not as a description of what scientists do. From a philosophical perspective the idea is sound, but there are no indications that scientists actively practice programs to search for disconfirming evidence. Another aspect of the inability of scientists to be objective is found in theory-laden observation, a psychological notion (Hodson, 1986). Scientists, like all observers, hold a myriad of preconceptions and biases about the way the world operates. These notions, held in the subconscious, affect everyone's ability to make observations. It is impossible to collect and interpret facts without any bias. There have been countless cases in the history of science in which scientists have failed to include particular observations in their final analyses of phenomena. This occurs, not because of fraud or deceit, but because of the prior knowledge possessed by the individual. Certain facts either were not seen at all or were deemed unimportant based on the scientists's prior knowledge. In earlier discussions of induction, we postulated that two individuals reviewing the same data would not be expected to reach the same conclusions. Not only does individual creativity play a role, but the issue of personal theory-laden observation further complicates the situation. This lesson has clear implications for science teaching. Teachers typically provide learning experiences for students without considering their prior knowledge. In the laboratory, for instance, students are asked to perform activities, make observations and then form conclusions. There is an expectation that the conclusions formed will be both self-evident and uniform. In other words, teachers anticipate that the data will lead all pupils to the same conclusion. This could only happen if each student had the same exact prior conceptions and made and evaluate observations using identical schemes. This does not happen in science nor does it occur in the science classroom. Related to the issue of theory-based observations is the allegiance to the paradigm. Thomas Kuhn (1970), in his ground-breaking analysis of the history of science, shows that scientists work within a research tradition called a paradigm. This research tradition, shared by those working in a given discipline, provides clues to the questions worth investigating, dictates what evidence is admissible and prescribes the tests and techniques that are reasonable. Although the paradigm


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provides direction to the research it may also stifle or limit investigation. Anything that confines the research endeavor necessarily limits objectivity. While there is no conscious desire on the part of scientists to limit discussion, it is likely that some new ideas in science are rejected because of the paradigm issue. When research reports are submitted for publication they are reviewed by other members of the discipline. Ideas from outside the paradigm are liable to be eliminated from consideration as crackpot or poor science and thus do not appear in print. Examples of scientific ideas that were originally rejected because they fell outside the accepted paradigm include the sun-centered solar system, warm-bloodedness in dinosaurs, the germ-theory of disease, and continental drift. When first proposed early in this century by Alfred Wegener, the idea of moving continents, for example, was vigorously rejected. Scientists were not ready to embrace a notion so contrary to the traditional teachings of their discipline. Continental drift was finally accepted in the 1960s with the proposal of a mechanism or theory to explain how continental plates move (Hallam, 1975 and Menard, 1986). This fundamental change in the earth sciences, called a revolution by Kuhn, might have occurred decades earlier had it not been for the strength of the paradigm. It would be unwise to conclude a discussion of scientific paradigms on a negative note. Although the examples provided do show the contrary aspects associated with paradigm-fixity, Kuhn would argue that the blinders created by allegiance to the paradigm help keep scientists on track. His review of the history of science demonstrates that paradigms are responsible for far more successes in science than delays. Myth 9: Experiments are the principle route to scientific knowledge Throughout their school science careers, students are encouraged to associate science with experimentation. Virtually all hands-on experiences that students have in science class is called experiments even if it would be more accurate to refer to these exercises as technical procedures, explorations or activities. True experiments involve carefully orchestrated procedures along with control and test groups usually with the goal of establishing a cause and effect relationship. Of course, true experimentation is a useful tool in science, but is not the sole route to knowledge. Many note-worthy scientists have used non-experimental techniques to advance knowledge. In fact, in a number of science disciplines, true experimentation is not possible because of the inability to control variables. Many fundamental discoveries in astronomy are based on extensive observations rather than experiments. Copernicus and Kepler changed our view of the solar system using observational evidence derived from lengthy and detailed observations frequently contributed by other scientists, but neither performed experiments. Charles Darwin punctuated his career with an investigatory regime more similar to qualitative techniques used in the social sciences than the experimental techniques


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commonly associated with the natural sciences. For his most revolutionary discoveries, Darwin recorded his extensive observations in notebooks annotated by speculations and thoughts about those observations. Although Darwin supported the inductive method proposed by Bacon, he was aware that observation without speculation or prior understanding was both ineffective and impossible. The techniques advanced by Darwin have been widely used by scientists Goodall and Nossey in their primate studies. Scientific knowledge is gained in a variety of ways including observation, analysis, speculation, library investigation and experimentation. Myth 10: All work in science is reviewed to keep the process honest. Frequently, the final step in the traditional scientific method is that researchers communicate their results so that others may learn from and evaluate their research. When completing laboratory reports, students are frequently told to present their methods section so clearly that others could repeat the activity. The conclusion that students will likely draw from this request is that professional scientists are also constantly reviewing each other's experiments to check up on each other. Unfortunately, while such a check and balance system would be useful, the number of findings from one scientist checked by others is vanishingly small. In reality, most scientists are simply too busy and research funds too limited for this type of review. The result of the lack of oversight has recently put science itself under suspicion. With the pressures of academic tenure, personal competition and funding, it is not surprising that instances of outright scientific fraud do occur. However, even without fraud, the enormous amount of original scientific research published, and the pressure to produce new information rather than reproduce others' work dramatically increases the chance that errors will go unnoticed. An interesting corollary to this myth is that scientists rarely report valid, but negative results. While this is understandable given the space limitations in scientific journals, the failure to report what did not work is a problem. Only when those working in a particular scientific discipline have access to all of the information regarding a phenomenon -- both positive and negative – can the discipline progress. Conclusions If, in fact, students and many of their teachers hold these myths to be true, we have strong support for a renewed focus on science itself rather than just its facts and principles in science teaching and science teacher education. This is one of the central messages in both of the new science education projects. Benchmarks for Science Literacy (AAAS, 1993) and the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1994) project both strongly suggest that school science must give students an opportunity to experience science authentically, free of the legends, misconceptions and idealizations inherent in the myths about the nature of the scientific enterprise. There must be increased opportunity for both preservice and inservice


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teachers to learn about and apply the real rules of the game of science accompanied by careful review of textbooks to remove the "creeping fox terriers" that have helped provide an inaccurate view of the nature of science. Only by clearing away the mist of half-truths and revealing science in its full light, with knowledge of both its strengths and limitations, will learners become enamored of the true pageant of science and be able fairly to judge its processes and products. Note: William McComas' address is School of Education-WPH 1001E, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031.


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TOPIC 2 ACQUIRING MANIPULATIVE SKILLS

SYNOPSIS

This topic enables teachers to acquire manipulative skills in

scientific investigations. There are psychomotor skills that

enable students to master :

i. Types and units of measurements

ii. Use and handle science apparatus

iii. Draw diagrams and apparatus accurately

iv. Handling specimens correctly and carefully

v. Clean science apparatus correctly

vi. Store science apparatus and laboratory substances

correctly and safely.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic teachers will able to :

1. Explain manipulative skills as psychomotor processes which

are developed through scientific investigation

2. Explain manipulative skills in scientific investigations that

include:

a. Types and units of measurements

b. Using and handling science apparatus

c. Drawing diagrams and apparatus accurately

d. Handling specimens correctly and carefully

e. Cleaning science apparatus correctly

f. Storing science apparatus and laboratory substances



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TOPIC’S FRAMEWORK

Figure 2 :Content Overview

CONTENTS

2.0 MANIPULATIVE SKILLS

Science emphasises inquiry and problem solving. In inquiry and

problem solving processes, scientific and thinking skills are utilised.

Scientific skills are important in any scientific investigation such as

conducting experiments and carrying out projects. Scientific skills

encompass science process skills and manipulative skills.

MANIPULATIVE SKILLS

Types and units of measurements

Clean science apparatus correctly

Store science apparatus and laboratory

substances


Handling specimens correctly and carefully

Draw diagrams and apparatus accurately

Use and handle science apparatus


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What are Manipulative skills? Manipulate means to control or use

something in a skilful way. So manipulative skills are psychomotor

skills that enable us to carry out the practical works. They involve the

development of hand-eye coordination and an ability to handle objects

with skill and dexterity. Example: A student uses a pair of tweezers and

a hand magnifier to examine the inside of a flowering plant.

Manipulative skills in scientific investigation are psychomotor skills that

enable students to:

a. Types and units of measurements

b. Using and handling science apparatus

c. Drawing diagrams and apparatus accurately

d. Handling specimens correctly and carefully

e. Cleaning science apparatus correctly

f. Storing science apparatus and laboratory substances


By mastering the manipulative skills, scientist can get reliable result.

It‘s also can avoid accidents and wastages.

1. Draw and name the apparatus that are usually used for primary science teaching 2. Find out how to use the apparatus above correctly

When using manipulative skills, pupils need to take care of their safety

as well as that of their friends. Steps that need to be taken include care

when using breakable apparatus, not pointing hot and boiling

substances towards others, avoid by specimens which are sharp, not

be bitten by small animals, and accidentally eat substances which are

poisonous. Practicing responsibility towards the safety of self and

others as a good and noble attitude.

Using a suitable graphic organizer, make a concept map of the

importance of mastering the manipulative skills for our pupils.


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2.1 TYPE AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

2.1.1 MEASURING LENGTH

To measure lengths, we can use ruler or measuring tapes. The

smallest division on a meter rule is 0.1 cm. A meter rule can therefore

measure length accurately up to 0.1 cm only.

1. Describe the correct way how to read the scale on a ruler to avoid parallax error. 2. Describe how the diameter of a ping-pong ball can be measured using the meter rule and a pair set squires.

A vernier caliper micrometer screw gauge and are common tools used

in laboratories and industries to accurately determine the fraction part

of the least count division. The vernier is convenient when measuring

the length of an object, the outer diameter (OD) of a round or

cylindrical object, the inner diameter (ID) of a pipe, and the depth of a

hole.

Collect information from several sources about Vernier Caliper and Micrometer Screw Gauge.

2.1.2 MEASURING TIME

Time can be measure using apparatus like watch, hourglass, or any

device which exhibits periodic motion.

Analogue stopwatch Digital stopwatch


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STOPWATCH

Stopwatches are used to measure short intervals of time. There are

two types of stopwatches; The digital stopwatch and analogue

stopwatch. The digital stopwatch is more accurate than the analogue

as it can measure time in intervals of 0.01 seconds while the latter can

only measure time in intervals of 0.1 seconds.

As the stopwatch is a sensitive instrument, two or three reading may

need to be taken and the average time computed. This is due to the

fact that the reaction time in starting and stopping the stopwatch varies

from person to person.

The typical reaction time of an individual is around 0.2 to 0.3 second. Think of an experiment to estimate the reaction time of an individual.

2.1.3 MEASURING VOLUME

Volume, the amount of space occupied, is usually measured with

beaker, conical flask, volumetric flask, graduated cylinder, syringe,

burette and pipette. Chemist use the units litres and millilitres,

abbreviated l and ml. The graduations on a beaker and a conical flask

are only approximate, and are not used for accurate measurement.

Pipette, burette and volumetric flask are used for accurate

measurement.


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2.1.4 MEASURING TEMPERATURE

THERMOMETER

The mercury thermometer is a thermometer commonly used in the

science laboratory. The mercury in the bulb is expands when heated.

The expansion of the mercury pushes the thread of mercury up the

capillary tube. The bulb is made of thin glass so that heat can be

conducted quickly to the mercury. The round glass stem acts as a

magnifying glass enabling the temperature to be read easily.

Describe how to use pipette in an acid-base titration correctly. Is it acid or base we put in the pipette in this titration? Why?

1. Discuss the correct way how to use a mercury thermometer. 2. What are the similarities and differences between a mercury thermometer and a clinical thermometer?


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2.1.5 MEASURING MASS

Mass is the amount of matter an object has. We often use a triple-

balance beam to measure mass. A triple-beam balance gets its name

because it has three beams that allow you to move known masses

along the beam.

Here is a picture of a triple beam balance. You probably have used one in school. There are also many other types of balances. Scientists need balances that can measure very small amounts of mass.

A triple beam balance compares a known mass to an unknown mass it

is unaffected by gravity. Unlike a spring scale which really measures

weight, the The first beam reads the mass from zero to 10 grams. The

middle beam reads in 100 gram increments and the far beam reads in

10 gram increments. By using all three of the beams, you can find the

mass of your object.


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2.1.6 MEASURING ELECTRIC CURRENT/VOLTAGE

AMMETER

To measure the size of an electric current, an ammeter can be used.

The ammeter must be connected in series to the circuit. The maximum

reading of a scale is called full-scale deflection.

Most of ammeters are twin-scale ammeter. Ammeters are sensitive

instruments. To avoid damaging the ammeter, the following

precautions need to be observed;

1. Ammeters must have a range that is suitable for the current to

be measured.

2. If the current to be measured is larger than the full-scale

deflection of the meter selected, excessive current will flow

through the meter and damage it

3. It is therefore important to always start with the highest range

when you use an ammeter. If the meter has several ranges,

use the range that will show reading around the middle of the

scale.

4. It is important to connect meters the correct way round to

prevent them from being damaged when the pointer tries to

move in the wrong direction. The positive ammeter‘s terminal

should be connected to the nearest positive terminal on the

battery or power supply. The negative ammeter‘s terminal

should be connected to the nearest negative terminal on the

battery or power supply.


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5. Before using an ammeter, ensure that the pointer is at zero

position. The pointer can be easily moved to zero position by

adjusting the zero adjustment screw below the pointer.

VOLTMETER

The potential difference across two point in a circuit can be measured

by a voltmeter. The volt meter must be connected in parallel to the

component across which the potential difference is being measured.

The current must flow into the positive terminal and flow out of the

negative terminal. Same precautions for ammeter apply to voltmeter.

A multimeter is a multi-functional

electrical meter.

Discuss what it can measure and how

to use it.


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2.2 USE AND HANDLE SCIENCE APPARATUS

2.2.1 Microscopes

Light Microscope - the models found in most schools, use compound

lenses and light to magnify objects. The lenses bend or refract the

light, which makes the object beneath them appear closer.

Stereoscope - this microscope allows for binocular (two eyes) viewing

of larger specimens.

2.2.2 USING AND HANDLING CHEMICALS

Never heat flammable solvents with open flame.

Unwanted solvents must be returned to solvent store or properly

disposed-of without delay.

Avoid spillages and wash hands immediately with soap and

water if contact occurs.

Add chemicals to water, never the reverse.

Use different spatulas for different chemicals

Limit the amount of each chemical used in the laboratory.

2.2.3 USING AND HANDLING OF ELECTRICAL

APPATARUS/EQUIPMENT

Make sure that all electrical cords are in good condition.

Make sure the circuits are not overloaded.

Connections should be made correctly.

Electrical apparatus connected to the mains should not be

touched by wet hands.

Do not use metal articles or wear metal jewellery when working

with electrical equipment.

Discuss general procedures how to use and handle microscope.


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Take precautions to prevent spills on electrical equipment or

electrical outlets.

2.3 DRAW DIAGRAMS AND APPARATUS ACCURATELY

Here are some tips how to draw a specimen.

1. Use unlined paper and plenty of space

2. Use a sharp pencil.

3. Draw only what you see

4. Sketch a large & simple diagram

5. Draw using correct scales

6. Do not shade or colour the drawing. Use stippling to indicate a

darker area

7. Use ruler to draw lines. Do not cross label lines

8. Labels to identify parts of object

9. Give your drawing a title

Access the internet to gather information on the Virtual lab.

How is it different from the normal science room?

Draw and name the apparatus that are usually used for primary science teaching.


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2.4 HANDLING SPECIMENS CORRECTLY AND CAREFULLY

Living thing brought to the classroom must be kept for short period or

permenant lodging. So they need specialised housing and regular care.

If possible build up an outdoor study area. You need to take safety

precaution while handling the specimen.

Hygiene and safety when handling living specimens must be given

extra attention. Make sure students wash their hand thoroughly with

soap and water after handling living specimens. Extra care must be

given when living specimens come with characteristics that may be

harmful to children (e.g. cactus with sharp thorns, insects that may bite

or sting, plant parts that may cause irritation). Remind students never

to taste or put anything in their mouth.

Activity 1: Green Bean Seeds

1. Prepare three spreads of cotton wool layer on separate tiles.

2. Place five green bean seeds on each cotton wool spread.

3. Leave the first cotton wool spread dry. Wet the second cotton

wool spread with five spoonful of water and the third with 20

spoonful or water

4. Water the second and third cotton wool spread with the same

amount of water for five days.

5. Observe the seedlings plant growing and record the height and

number of leaves everyday.

Activity 2: Fish and Lizard

1. Prepare an aquarium with fish and a lizard in a tank.

2. Observe these animals.

3. Identify and compare the features of these two animals.

a) What are the common features of these animals?

b) What characteristics are different?


37

HANDLING OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS

All hand to mouth operations should be avoided.

Insects and small animals should be placed in a safe cage or

aquarium.

Injury by studied animals should be treated with antiseptic and

further treatment should be taken.

Wounds must be completely covered before work.

Consider using films, video, and computer simulations in place

of dissection activities.

Glassware and microscope slides can be sterilized and reused.

Any spillage or accidents must be recorded although there is no

injury.

Plant

Do the observation in the field

Return the specimens to the field

Don‘t throw the specimens into the dustbin

Do not handle poisonous plants

Animal

Observe life insect in closed petri dishes

Release the insect in nature after the activity

To ensure safety

Before starting work, cover all wounds

Hands must be thoroughly washed with soap at least

If bitten treat the wound with antiseptic

2.5 CLEAN SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS CORRECTLY

Clean glassware using cleansing detergent, rinse with water and

then dry them up.

For drying, let the glassware stand or hang on drying boards or

racks.

After using any instruments make sure clean them before

storing.


38

2.6 STORE SCIENCE APPARATUS AND LABORATORY

SUBSTANCES CORRECTLY AND SAFELY

Large equipment and larger chemical containers should be

stored on lower shelves only,

Substances should be stored at the correct temperature,

Do not place hazardous materials in unstable containers or in an

apparatus that is not properly secured,

Poisons should be kept locked in cabinet,

Store all active chemicals in dark container,

Acids and corrosives should be stored in a non-metal and

vented cabinet

Write short notes on the handling, cleaning and storing of science apparatus.

www.biologycorner.com

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www.wikihow.com

www.sciencekit.com

http://www.biologycorner.com/

http://www.ehow.com/

http://www.wikihow.com/

http://www.sciencekit.com/


39

TOPIC 3 BASIC SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

SYNOPSIS

In this topic you will be introduced to seven basic science process skills.

You also will be provided with activities that you can try with your pupils

to develop all these skills. Exercises and tutorial questions given here

will help you to evaluate how good are you in these basic science

process skills and can enhance your understanding as well.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


1. Develop a critical appreciation of the basic science process skills

and its practice in the teaching of science in primary schools.

2. Demonstrate competence in designing approaches that support

children in developing their science procedural skills and

understandings


40

TOPIC’S FRAMEWORK

Figure 3 : Content Overview CONTENTS 3.1 OBSERVING

What is observing?

Do you really know what observing is? Most of us understand that

observing involves our eyes to see and understand things around us.

But actually it is more than that. Observing is the fundamental science

process skill that need all our five senses to characterize the object,

identify changes, similarities and differences in order to understand

world around us. On the other hand we can say that observing involves

collecting information about objects or phenomenon by using the five

Basic Process Skills

Observing

Classifying

Communicating

Predicting

Measuring and Using Numbers

Inferring

Using space-time relationships


41

senses, sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Observation in science,

expects the students to pay attention to details. The distinction

between seeing, looking and observation should be made very clear.

At one end of the spectrum, seeing is presented as a passive approach

whereas at the other end of the spectrum, observing is an active

approach.

When we want to know about a fruit, you will use your eyes to see the

shape and the colour of the fruit. You also will touch and smell the

fruits to determine whether the fruit ripe or not. Then you will test

whether the fruit sweet or not by tasting it using your tongue. Some

time we also shake and listen the sound produced to test how good is

the texture. Here we use all our senses to learn about the fruit. This

type of observation is called qualitative observation. If we go more

detail by telling the mass and the length of the fruit for example 200 g

and 30 cm, the observation is called quantitative observation

because it involves a number or the quantity.

Quantitative observations give more precise information than our

senses alone. Not surprisingly, students, especially younger children,

need help in order to make good observations. If a student is

describing what he or she can see, they might describe the color of an

object but not its size or shape. Good productive observations are

detailed and accurate written or drawn descriptions, and students need

to be prompted to produce these elaborate descriptions. The reason

that observations must be so full of detail is that only then students can

increase their understanding of the concepts being studied.

How can we guide our students to make a better more detailed

description?

Ask the students to focus on the objects or phenomena to be

studied and identify the characteristics.


42

Let them give initial qualitative observation. Then prompting

them to elaborate by questioning them or giving them the tools

that can be used to aid them making some more qualitative

and quantitative observation.

If something is changing, students should include, before, during,

and after appearances in their observations. If possible,

students should be encouraged to name what is being

observed.

Try to use so-called referents, references to items that all

persons are already familiar with to describe the observation

clearer. For example, we often describe colors using referents.

We might say blue as sky, green as grass, or yellow as lemon

to describe particular shades of blue, green, or yellow.

When we measure some property, we compare the property to

a defined referent called a unit. A measurement statement

contains two parts, a number to tell us how much or how many,

and a name for the unit to tell us how much of what. The use of

the number makes a measurement a quantitative observation.

For example, the leaves are clustered in groups of five or mass

of one leaf is five grams.

As a conclusion we can say that observation is made when;

Using all the senses to get the information

Using tools or instruments to make precise observation

Identify the similarities and differences to make comparison

Identify the special attributes of the objects and its environment

Realizing changes in environment

Identify the arrangement about object or phenomena

The ability to make good observations is also essential to the

development of the other science process skills: communicating,

classifying, measuring, inferring, and predicting


43

Try these activities to develop your observing skills

Activity 1

Material:

1. Peanut

Procedures:

1. Make the observation on a peanut.

2. Write your observation in the table below.

Result

Observations

Using

sight

senses

Using

taste

senses

Using

smell

senses

Using touch

senses

Using

hearing

senses

Which of your observations are quantitative observation? If none,

rethink and try to make some.

________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Activity 2:

Materials

1. Cream crackers biscuit

2. Distll water

Procedures:

1. Observe a piece of cream crackers biscuit.

2. Immerse the biscuit into distill water.


44

3. Write your observation in the table below.

Result

Observations

Using

sight

senses

Using

taste

senses

Using

smell

senses

Using

touch

senses

Using

hearing

senses

Before

immerse

in water

During

immerse

in water

After

immerse

in water

Which of your observations are quantitative observation? If none,

rethink and try to make some.

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________


45

1. Why do we need to observe?

2. What is the importance of observation?

3. Plan three activies of Science Process Skill, observing based on

Primary Science Specification.

Tutorial 1

1. In groups, carry out the Candle Activity. Discuss and present

your answers

Tutorial 2

2. Read the article ―Elephant Observations‖ and answer the

questions.

Read the article on ―Working Scientifically‖ and prepare a concept map.

Congratulation!

You have done your work diligently. Have a short rest and then continue to the another basic science process skil.


46

Tutorial 1

CANDLE ACTIVITY Materials:

Candle

Lighter

Make qualitative and quantitative measurements of a small candle both before and after it has burned for two minutes. Anchor the candle in a ball of modeling clay. Qualitative Observations Before burning ____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ During burning ____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ After burning _____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ Quantitative Observations

Observations

Before Burning After Burning


47

How does the two types of observations differ from one another? ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Which one is more appropriate for use with scientific observations? Why? ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Tutorial 2

ELEPHANT OBSERVATIONS

Long time ago in a distant land, six blind men lived together. All of them had heard of elephants, but they had never ―seen‖ one. When they heard that an elephant and his trainer would be visiting their village, they all wanted an encounter with this beast. They made their way to the site where the elephant was being kept. Each blind man touched the elephant and made his observations. The observations are listed below. One man touched the elephant‟s side and said. “ An elephant is like a wall.” Another man touched the trunk and said, “An elephant is like a snake.” Another man touched a tusk and said, “An elephant is like a spear.” Another man touched a leg and said, “An elephant is like a fan.”


48

The last man touched the tail and said, “An elephant is like a rope.”

Did the blind men make appropriate inferences? Explain. _______________________________________________________

How might the blind men improve their inferences? ________________________________________________________

One of the characteristics of science is that scientists communicate their ideas, observation, results, and inferences with each other. Why is this a good idea?

________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ In the space below, write a sentence or two explaining what you have learned. Qualitative Observations ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________ Quantitative Observations ________________________________________________________

Did the activities above help you to make better observations? Explain. ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________


49

How does telling stories can make teaching more fun to primary students? ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________


50

Working scientifically

Introduction

‘Working scientifically’ involves the

processes of science, including

understanding the sorts of questions that are

the province of science; the design

of experiments; reasoning and arguing with

scientific evidence; and analysing

and interpreting data.

Detailed discussion of working scientifically

in primary schools can be found in

Keith Skamp’s Teaching primary science

constructively (Thomson Learning

2004). An example of the forms of

knowledge associated with working

scientifically can be found in the Victorian

Curriculum and Standards

Framework (CSF) for science, which can be

found on the Victorian Curriculum

and Assessment Authority website

<http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/index.html>.

Key concepts of working

scientifically

The activities in this topic are designed to

explore the following key concepts:

• ‘Working scientifically’ involves

particular forms of reasoning with

evidence that is different in detail from

reasoning in other areas.

• There is no one ‘scientific method’, but

many ways in which scientists plan

to establish ideas and generate evidence to

explore and support these ideas.

• An oft-cited example of scientific

method is the controlled experiment,

where the relationship between an effect and

a variable is explored, with

other potentially confounding variables

controlled (i.e. kept the same). An

example would be the exploration of the

http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/index.html


51

effect of the length of a pendulum

on its period of swing, keeping the weight

and swing size the same but

varying the length and timing of the swing.

However, for many branches of

science, this type of control is not possible.

For instance, in studying

ecological systems, in many cases theories

must be established by looking

at existing ecosystems with many variables.

In geology and astronomy the

idea of controlling and repeating observations

is very different. What is

common to all these areas, however, is the

collection of evidence to support

or argue against claims, and reasoning with

evidence that attempts to isolate

clear causes for phenomena.

• Working scientifically involves a

number of ‘concepts of evidence’,

including the purpose and techniques of

focused observation, the

recognition of a scientific question that can

be investigated, the need for

repeat measurements and skills in devising

measurement processes, ways of

recording data (these can vary considerably)

and representing data for

analysis, different experimental designs and

associated principles

(e.g. understanding ‘sample size’ in making

observations in the field), and

reporting.

Students’ alternative conceptions of

working scientifically

Research into students’ ideas about this topic has

identified the following

non-scientific conceptions:

• Students will not immediately see the task of

an investigation as exploring

ideas or looking for patterns, but will treat an

investigation simply as

‘establishing what is’ without thought for

considering alternative

interpretations.


52

• Students have problems recognising what is

an investigable question and

will propose questions such as ‘What is

electricity?’ as the basis for

investigation. Their questions need to be

worked with and clarified to

become amenable to scientific investigation.

• Students will not understand many of the

concepts relating to

measurement—for instance, the reading of a

scale, the recording of

comparison measurements using consistent

processes, the calibration of

instruments, the need for repeat measurements

and the concept of

uncertainty in measurement. They need to be

supported in making

defensible measurements.

• Students can understand the need to control

variables in simple situations

(to make the test ‘fair’), such as the need to

use the same amount of each

type of sugar when comparing the solubility

of sugars. However, they have

difficulty in cases of interacting variables (e.g.

finding out the separate

effects of weight and length on a pendulum

swing, or the separate effect of

light and moisture in determining where

slaters prefer to live).

• Students will not understand the power of

laying out data in tables and

graphs, and the use of a table as a design

organiser to help plan a series of

measurements.

• Depending on their knowledge and experience,

students may have trouble

arguing clearly from evidence.

It has been amply demonstrated that, with

appropriate support, even very young

children are capable of distinguishing between

observations and inferences, of

asking investigable questions, planning

experiments and arguing from evidence.


53

Consumer science

‘Consumer science’ refers to activities in the

classroom whereby students use

scientific processes to make judgments about

consumer products. Although

consumer science does not fall easily into any

major curriculum topic

categories, it is an important and fun vehicle for

teaching students about some

of the science processes such as fair testing,

measuring and recording. It

provides a vehicle for learning about the nature of

scientific investigation.

It should be noted, however, that these

investigations, because they mostly

involve comparisons on the basis of criteria, do

not illustrate the more difficult

nature of working scientifically that deals with the

exploration of conceptual

ideas.

Skills and understandings of consumer

science

The activities in this topic are designed to develop

the following skills and

understandings of this topic:

• how to formulate useful, investigable

questions

• the importance of measuring accurately

• why it is necessary to ensure that all tests are

fair and repeatable

• the purpose of planning and designing

investigations

• how to design valid experiments with

appropriate variable control

• how to design measurement procedures

• how to represent data for analysis and

reporting.

Things to consider when completing

activities

The activities in this topic give examples of some


54

types of products suitable for

early and middle years consumer science testing.

In judging different products,

the things that need to be considered

(summarising the discussion above) are:

• what criteria are relevant for the evaluation

• what weighting should be given to the various

criteria

• whether the test is fair

• whether the results are reproducible

• whether the method of comparison (scale,

addition of scores, etc.) is

appropriate.

Development of students’ testing

capabilities

The following descriptions of students’

capabilities at different year levels, and

the type of activity appropriate for each, are based

on reports of Deakin

University students teaching consumer science

activities to groups of students

in schools.

Prep/Year 1

It is most appropriate to structure tests and

scaffold children’s experimenting.

Criteria and procedures need to be decided by the

teacher, using simple tests

and comparisons, rather than measurements.

Ensure there is a low demand for

manipulation skills.

Examples of appropriate tests include comparing

the sweetness of cereals, the

amount of salt or oil in chips or the amount of

bubble in detergents.

Year 2

Students can define criteria, but have little understanding of a fair test, e.g. so

they may cheat to make sure their chosen sample

‘wins’.


55

Year 3

Students are beginning to appreciate the notion of a fair test. They can define

criteria and conduct given tests with fairness and

appreciate how differences in

results can arise.

Year 4 Depending on the content area, students should now be able to design

experiments and plan measurements with minimal

input from the teacher.

Years 5 and above

The comparison of products by discussion of

weighting of criteria is

increasingly possible. Students are able to set out

tables and deal with different

orders on different criteria. They can hold a

reasoned discussion on the factors

affecting the performance of different products,

and ways of exploring these

further.

Activities

Exploring consumer science

Key ideas: Articulating and refining questions.

Designing experiments and

controlling variables. Developing measurement

procedures. Constructing and

interpreting data representations.

A C T I V I T Y:

P O TAT O C H I P S

Teaching note: This activity can be used for all levels but will need to be

adapted accordingly. Have the students work in groups. Each group should have

a scoresheet and a recorder, a reporter, a timekeeper and someone to hand out

each item. Make sure all the students take it in turns to taste the items. You

might want to collect the information and collate it on the board. Some

discussion of the problems with testing, especially the problems associated in

keeping things ‘fair’, should be encouraged.

You will need:

• a variety of brands of potato chips

• brown paper squares

• brown paper bags

• rolling pins

• breadboards

• jars of water.


56

a) Test for salt content

Taste directly—have ONE student taste each brand of chip to determine and give

their opinion of which is the saltiest. It might be a good idea to blindfold the

student so they do not see the brand they are tasting and select their favourite (or

least favourite, accordingly)

SCE 3106 : WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

57

Dissolve in water and taste (what will you control?)—crush a chip of

each brand

(making sure you keep the samples the same size) and put the crumbs of

each chip

into separate containers with about 40 mL of water. Add a pinch of

salt to another

40 mL of water. Have a clean glass of water on hand. Alternatively taste the

salted

water and each chip water, taking a sip of fresh water in between tastes.

Which is

saltier?

b) Test for oil content by rubbing between sheets of brown paper

Place a chip between two sheets of brown paper on the breadboard, and then

crush it by rolling over it with the rolling pin. How much oil appears

on the brown

paper? Measure the spot using a ruler.

Alternatively, place a chip on top of a pile of brown paper pieces. Roll over it

using

the rolling pin. How many thicknesses of paper did the oil penetrate? Hold

the oil

patch over some print or up to the light. How translucent is the patch?

Repeat the experiment for the other brands of chips.

c) Taste test

Place a sample of each brand of chip into a paper bag. Have one student act

as the

taste-tester (only one student at a time should test the chips!). Get the

student to

taste each brand of chip from the unmarked bags. It might be a good idea to

get

them to have a sip of clean water between each taste. What could they test

for

(e.g. crunch, flavour, texture)?

d) Testing the packaging

Examine the packaging that the chips come in. How is the manufacturer

trying to

sell the chips? What colours are used in the packaging? What is the salt or

fat

content according to the nutrition label? Is there a trinket included in the

pack? Is

this important to the group? How easy are the bags to open? Rate what the

students think of each and keep score. Which brand of chips is considered to

be

best according to its packaging? Why?


58

Rank the criteria in order of importance. Which chips would you

recommend

A C T I V I T Y:

C E R E A L

Teaching note: This activity is similar to the chip

experiment above and so the

same guidance should be offered. The experiments outlined

above for potato

chips can be carried out for cereals, although you should test

for sugar content

instead of salt!

You will need:

• a variety of cereal packages.

Look at the packet nutrition guide. Compare cereals for sugar, fat,

carbohydrate

content.

A C T I V I T Y:

T E S T I N G

B A L L S Teaching note: This activity is suitable for all levels depending on the comparisons made.

You will need:

• a range of types of balls, e.g. tennis, squash, ping-pong, golf, rubber,

plastic

• a range of different surfaces, e.g. carpet, concrete, grass

• a metre rule.


59

3.2 CLASSIFYING

What is classifying?

Whether we realise or not, we always classify things in our daily life. We classify

books in the library according to the subject and keep the science apparatus in

the store room according to the type of the apparatus. Your employer classifies

you according the work you do and the government classifies you by sex, age,

income and so on. Classifying can be defined as a process of grouping objects

according to certain characteristics for a purpose. We need to identify similarities

and differences while identifying characteristics. So we also can say that

classifying is a process of grouping objects or events according to similarities or

differences. This is an important step towards a better understanding of the

different objects and events in the world.

When do we need to classify? We classify when there are many items or

information which are not organized. To classify these items we can follow the

following steps:

1. Identify the general characteristics of the items.

2. Sort out items of the same characteristic into their respective groups.

3. Identify other characteristics.

4. Repeat steps 1-3 until there is only one item in each group.

Beside that, Indicators For Classifying constructed by Malaysia Curriculum

Development Centre (PPK, 1994) can be used as a guideline to classify items or

information correctly. The indicators are:

Identify similarities and differences

Group objects based on common characteristics

Explain methods of classification in simple terms

Other criteria may be used to group objects

Objects may be grouped in various ways


60

There are 3 types of classification

Series system: This is the simplest method of classification. Objects are

placed into rank order based on some property. For example, students

can be serial ordered according to height, or different breakfast cereals

can be serial ordered according to number of calories per serving.

Example:

Binary system: In this system, a set of objects is simply divided into two

subsets. This is usually done on the basis of whether each object has or

does not have a particular property. For example, animals can be

classified into two groups: those with backbones and those without

backbones. A binary classification can also be carried out using more than

one property at once. Objects in one group must have all of the required

properties; otherwise they will belong to the other group.

Example:

OR

Multilevel system: A multi-stage classification is constructed by

performing consecutive binary classifications on a set of objects and then

HUMAN

MAN WOMAN

INDIAN CHINESE MALAY

HUMAN

EUROPEAN

HUMAN


61

on each of the ensuing subsets. The result is a classification system

consisting of layers or stages. A multi-stage classification is complete

when each of the objects in the original set has been separated into a

category by itself. The familiar classifications of the animal and plant

kingdoms are examples of multi-stage classifications. A useful activity for

younger children could be to create a multi-stage classification of some

local animals using physical and/or behavioral similarities and differences.

Example:

You can add some more shapes according to their characteristics and you can

extent this classification as well to become more layers if possible.

Try these activities to develop your classifying skills

Activity 1.

Materials:

1. A bag of coins with different value

Procedures

1. Observe the coins and characterised them.

2. Classify the coins by using serial system, binary system and multilevel

system.

HUMAN

MAN WOMAN

SHAPE

2 DIMENSIONAL 3 DIMENSIONAL

CONE CUBE CUBOID

RECTANGLE TRIANGLE CIRCLE

CYLINDER SPHERE


62

Result

1. Serial system

2. Binary system

3. Multilevel system


63

Activity 2

Materials:

1. A set of assorted nuts with different colour, different number size and

different shapes

Procedures

1. Observe the nuts and characterised them.

2. Classify the nuts by using serial system, binary system and multilevel

system.

Answer

1. Serial system

2. Binary system

3. Multilevel system


64

1 What is the importance of classifying?

2. Plan three classifying activies based on Primary Science Specification.

Carry out the ―Classifying Button Activity‖. From your experience, discuss

what other things in our lives that need classification?

Congratulation! You have done your work.

Tutorial

CLASSIFYING BUTTONS Materials:

8 different types of buttons

Methods: 1. Place the eight buttons in the box at the top of the chart on the next page. 2. Trace around the buttons and color them. 3. Divide the buttons into two groups in the boxes below the large box at the top. 4. Trace around the buttons and color them. In the boxes, write the property you used to sort the buttons. 5. Group the buttons from each box into the two boxes below each box.


65

6. Trace around the buttons and color them. Write the property you used to sort the buttons. 7. Place one button in each of the boxes at the attachment sheet. 8. Trace around each button and color it. In the boxes, write the properties of each button. Answer the following questions:

By going through the primary science curriculum specifications, list the topics that you think are important to do classification?

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

What are the ways in which things can be classified? ________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________


66

3.3 COMMUNICATING

Communicating is the skill to pass on information or ideas to other people orally

or in writing. Students have to communicate in order to share their observations

with someone else. The communication must be clear and effective if the other

person to understand the information. Effective communication is clear, precise

and unambiguous and uses skills that need to developed and practiced.

What is communicating? Communicating is a process of receiving, spreading

and sharing of information and ideas. You are communicating

when you are:

1. Speaking, listening or writing to express ideas or meanings.

2. Recording information from investigations.

3. Drawing and making notes.

4. Using and explaining the meaning of symbols.

5. Using charts, graphs and tables to present information.

6. Posting questions clearly.

7. Using references.

8. Writing experiment report to enable others to repeat the experiment.

The idea to communicate using descriptive word for which both people share a

common understanding.There is three steps that shows you are communicating

when:

1. Record information obtained from various resources.

2. Translate the information into other forms such as charts, graphs and

tables.

3. Spread the information through various means and ways.

We can communicate effectively if we:

1. Describe only what we observe (see, smell, hear and taste) rather than

what you infer about the object or events.

2. Make your description brief by using precise language.


67

3. Communicate information accurately using many qualitive observations as

the situation may call for.

4. Consider the point of view and past experience of the person with whom

you are communicating.

5. Provide a means for getting feedback from the person with you are

communicating in order to determine the effectiveness of your

communication.

6. Construct an alternative description if necessary.

Talking while doing science activities, making entries in journals,recording and

organizing data, comparing results and sharing findings are all activities that help

children develop effective ways to communicate. Learning to use communication

tools helps children to be able to make good decisions about how to

communicate observations and ideas.

COMMUNICATION TOOLS

COMMUNICATING

ORAL

DESCRIPTIONS

BODY

LANGUAGESYMBOLS

GRAPHS

MODELS

CHARTS

CONCEPT MAPS TABLES

WRITTEN

LANGUAGE MAPS

DRAWINGS

NUMBERS

MUSIC

Science educators are agree that learning science process skills means

‗learning how to learn‘. Children learn through critical thinking and by using

information creatively. So why do we need to communicate? Communicating

skill will help us:

1. To spread ideas or information.


68

2. To share ideas or information.

When science process skills was introduced primary science, Curriculum

Development Centre give guidelines for teachers to detect whether their pupils

has mastered ther skills.They give the indicators for every skills. Indicators for

Communicating skill are :

1. Speak, listen or write to explain ideas or meaning to friends.

2. Record information from studies.

3. Draw and make notes.

4. Use symbols and explain what they mean

5. State questions clearly

6. Use reference material

7. Write reports of experiments so that others can repeat the experiments

(CDC, 1994)

ACTIVITY 1

Year five students from SK Sri Rusa are doing an investigation on the content of

potassium in different types of drinking water. Below is their findings:

Brand X has 25 mmol , Brand W has 23 mmol, Brand K has 46 mmol, Brand T

has 53 mmol, brand Y has 15 mmol and Brand G has 20mmol

Help these students to present their findings. Choose any suitable

communication tools.


69

ACTIVITY 2

Raudhah is investigating different size of ice and time taken to melt. She put her

observation in the table below:

Ice mass( gram) 45 57 63 77 85

Melting time (min) 2 3 5 8 10

Draw a graph based on the data from the table above.

Answer the question below. Discuss the answer with your lecturer during face-to

face interaction.

1. Siti used a concept map as a tool to present her understanding about

working scientifically.

Which of the following science process skills is used by her ?

(A) Observing

(B) Predicting

(C) Classifying

(D) Communicating


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2. Syamil wanted to find out if the colour of food would affect whether a primary

school student would select it for breakfast. He put food colouring into four

identical bowls of mashed potatoes. The colours were red, green, blue, and

yellow. Each child chose a scoop of potatoes of the colour of their choice.

Syamil did this experiment on 50 primary school student.

(a) Give one suitable problem statement (research question) for this

experiment.

(b) State the variables involved in this experiment.

(i) Constant variable.

(ii) Manipulated variable.

(iii) Responding variable.

(c) Suggest one hypotesis which can be tested in this experiment.

(d) Suggest one way to display the experimental results quantitatively.

(e) State one way to improve this experiment.


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Tutorial 1 Select one ―Communication tool‖ and demonstrate it to your peers.

Tutorial 2

1. Select a topic from this course and prepare a concept map 2. Discuss how your concept map can facilitate / simplify learning.

3. Present your concept map to your peers

Gather information to compare how people communicate at present and in the past according to chronological order.


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3.4 PREDICTING

An important skill in science is predicting. Predicting is the process using past

observations or data along with other kinds of scientific knowledge to forecast

event or relationships. It is forming an idea of an expected result on what will

occur based upon present knowledge and understanding, observations and

inferences. A statement not based on observation is not a prediction. It is simply

a guess. It can be classified into: a) Interpolation - is predicting new data based

on and within a trend or pattern of previously observed data and b) Extrapolation

- is predicting new data outside or beyond the range of previously observed data.

A prediction is an educated guess as to what will happen. It should be followed

by a written or oral explanation to clarify ideas and reveal any misconceptions or

missing information. You can help by asking, ― What‘s going to happen?‖, ―Why

do you think that happened?‖, ―Is there a way you could find that out?‖.

Predicting is closely related to observing, inferring, and classifying. Prediction is

based on careful observation and inferences made about relationships between

observed events. Remember that inferences are explanations or interpretations

of observations and that inferences are supported by observations.

Classification is employed when we identified similarities or differences to impart

order to objects and events. Order in our environment permits us to recognize

patterns and to predict the patterns what future observations will be.

We make sense of the world around us by observing things happen and then

interpreting and explaining them. We often detect patterns in what we observe.

When we think we can explain why things work the way they do. Often we use

these to predict occurrences that might happen in the future. Here are some

examples of predictions:

I see it is raining and the sun is coming out. There could be a rainbow.

If I release both balls at the same time, they will hit the ground at the same

time.


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Notice that each of the sample predictions is written in future tense. Each

prediction statement is based on observations and patterns that have developed

from past observations. How we explain and how we interpret what we observe

affect how we predict. Testing our predictions leads to making more observations

that either support or do not support original predictions. When new observations

are consistent with our predicted pattern of observations, we have even greater

confidence in our prediction. However, when new observations do not support

our original prediction, we may reject it and re- examine our observations. New

observations lead to new inferences and new predictions. Therefore, our map of

the process skill of predicting looks more like this:

As new data (observations) are collected, theories (inferences) are proposed to

explain what has been observed and to predict what has not yet been observed.

In fact, for a theory to be accepted in science, it must meet a threefold test:

can explain what has already been observed

can predict what has not yet been observed

can be tested by further observation and modified as required by new data

You are predicting when you are….

1. Using previous or present evidence to state incoming events.

2. Able to differentiate between prediction and guessing.

3. Able to determine the outcomes from an action.

PREDICTING

OBSERVING INFERRING


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4. Using pattern of data explicitly to make projections.

5. Confident with the accuracy of the prediction.

6. Able to verify a statement of related to future events based on evidence

or past experiences.

7. Being cautious in making assumption about a certain pattern of data

beyond the evidence at hand.

8. Extrapolating and inserting data as a tool to predict.

(CDC, 1994)

Activity 1

Learn Predicting – Drops of Water

Material

Coins – 5 sen, 10 sen, 50 sen, and RM 1

Dropper

Beaker of water

Method:

1. Use the dropper to drip drops of water on a 20 sen coin. Do this

carefully until water starts to flow off the surface of the coin. Counts

the number of drops.

A 20 sen coin can hold *drops of water.

Record the number of drops in the space marked * in the table

below.

2. Compare the 20 sen coin with the other coins in terms of size and

shape. Predict the number of drops the other coins will probably

hold.


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3. What factors did you consider when making the predictions?

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

4. Test your predictions by dropping water on each coin.

5. If the number of drops of water you predicted differ from the actual

number, what do you think caused the difference?

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

Coin

5 sen 10 sen 20 sen 50 sen RM 1

Prediction

Actual *

Num

be

r

of

dro

ps


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Activity 2

Practice Predicting – The Shortest Day

Material

Data sheet (below) concerning time of sunrise and sunset

Graph paper

Method

1. The following data sheet shows the time the sun rises and sets

every sixth day in a region in the northern hemisphere (30(N).

Date

Month-Day

Sunrise

a.m.

Sunset

p.m.

Daylight *Only a few calculations are

necessary

(hour, minute)

11-13 6:23 5:05

11-19 6:28 5:02

11-25 6:33 5:00

12-01 6:38 5:00

12-07 6:42 5:00

12-13 6:47 5:01

12-19 6:51 5:03

12-25 6:54 5:06

12-31 6:56 5:10

1-06 6:57 5:15

1-12 6:57 5:20

1-18 6:56 5:25


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2. Draw and label a graph for each time of sunrise and time of sunset.

From the graphs, obtain the dates when the sun sets the earliest

and when it rises the latest, respectively.

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

3. From the two graphs, predict the date of the shortest day.

Remember, you can put one of these graphs over the other.

Explain how you make your prediction.

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

4. Calculate the lengths of the shortest day by taking into account the

length of the day several days before and several days after the

date of the shortest day, and record your findings in the column

marked * in the table given.

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________


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1) Which of these statements is an observation, an inference or a prediction?

a) ―I can feel the earth rumbling.‖

―The rumbling is caused by the volcano.‖

―It‘s going to erupt!‖

b) ―The two girls are wearing robes and mortarboard.‖

―They have just attended their graduation day.‖

―They are going to get job with good pay.‖

c) ―The left-hand end of the seesaw is lower than the right-hand end.‖

―If the person on the left-hand end gets off, the right-hand end will fall.‖

―One person is heavier than the other.‖

2) Harith has dropped a ball from two different heights, and measured how high

it bounced each time. He recorded his results in a column graph.

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Drop height (cm)

Bounce Height

(cm)

50 100

Get a textbook. Try and practice all the suggestions that was discussed above. Do you think it has help you to remember better?


79

a) Predict how high the ball will bounce if he drops it from 75 cm onto the same

surface?

b) Predict the bounce height for a drop height of 200 cm

Access the internet to gather information about the differences between inference and prediction. List down the differences.


80

3.5 MEASURING AND USING NUMBERS Measuring and using numbers are processes of observing quantitatively using

standard or standardized measuring tools as the reference units.

Standard tools – established tools such as rulers, measuring tapes, measuring

cylinders (Tools which are used established or accepted universally)

STANDARDISED TOOLS – tools which can be used for measuring an object

quantitatively using unit which is not established / accepted universally such as

cup, spoon...etc. Measuring involves making quantitative observations by

comparing against certain standard units like centimeter , inches, gram , liter etc.

Students make quantitative observations by comparing standard or non-standard

units. They will be able to describe relationships between objects by using

graphs, charts, diagrams and tables. Apparatus such as thermometers ,clocks,

rulers etc. are used to make the measuring. We need to measure and use

numbers to obtain more accurate measurements such as our body mass index.

How do we measure and use numbers?

1. Identify the measurement required, for example the diameter of a test tube.

2. Specify the instrument to be used. Which is more accurate? A meter ruler, a

vernier caliper or a micrometer screw gauge?

3. Compare the readings from each tool.

4. Which tool do you think gives the most accurate reading?

You are measuring and using numbers when you are….

1. Able to count and compare quantity of items in different groups.


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2. Able to count and compare quantity of items in the same groups.

3. Able to recognise the pattern from a table of numbers.

4. Use numbers to record a phenomenon.

5. Use numbers to record a measurement.

6. Use scales and explain ratios.


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7. Compare objects using numbers.

8. Use tools correctly.

………………… ……………… ………………… …………

…………………… ……………….. ………………………

9. Record units correctly.


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10. Convert and use standard units.

1. 1.0 mm = __ m

2. .01 s = __ ms

3. 1.0 m2 = __ cm2

4. 1.0 m3 = __ cm3 (cubic meters to cubic centimeters)

Visit the Bureau at www.bipm.fr or the National Institute of Standards

at www.NIST.gov

11. Compare time, distance, area and volume with relevant units.


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ACTIVITY 1

Study the following picture and list the physical quantities that can be measured.

ACTIVITY 2

1. Estimate the length of each parts of your body by putting them in order

from shortest to longest.

Body Part Estimated order

1=shortest

10= longest

Measurement Actual order

1=shortest

10= longest

Thumb

Hand

2. Use the metric tape measure to measure your body parts and write the

actual measurement in centimeters.

The list of physical quantities :

1. …………………………………….

2. …………………………………….

3. …………………………………….

4. …………………………………….

5. …………………………………….


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3. Use the actual measurements to order your body parts from shortest to

longest, using 1 for the shortest and 10 for the longest.

4. Compare your estimates with your measurements.

How close was the estimated order to the actual order?

___________________________________________________________

5. What surprised you?

1. Which of the following activities can help to enhance the skill of

measuring and using numbers?

I. Design a model of a science lab using recycle materials. II. Construct a plan of a classroom representing the actual distance. III. Select an appropriate measuring tool to measure the area of a

soccer field. IV. Conduct the correct technique when measuring liquid using a

graduated cylinder.

(A) I, II and III only. (B) I, II and IV only. (C) II, III and IV only. (D) I, II, III and IV only.


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2. Khadijah is investigating the effect of water on the growth of tomato seeds.

She used tomato seeds, wet cotton and a beaker. The results of her

investigation are recorded in Table 3 below.

Time (day) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Length (cm) 0 1 2 3 4 4

Table 3

(a) List four basic science process skills involved in the investigation.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

(b) What is the appropriate tool to measure the length of the seeds ?

__________________________________________________________

(c) Name the unit used for the measurement in (b).

___________________________________________________________


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(d) If Khadijah does not want to present the data using a table, how could

she does it in order to get the same results?

TUTORIAL 1

List down the types of measurement and the units used for each type.

Compare imperial units to the metric system.

TUTORIAL 2

Carry out the ―Mixing Water‖ activity.

Discuss how understanding of measurements enables you to make better and

more informed decisions in your daily life.

Read the article ―Did You Know (Facts on Numbers)‖. Discuss and identify how

numbers affect your life.


88

Did you know, that ...

a very thirsty camel can drink 35 gallons (135 liter)water in 6 minutes

one record holding camel drank over 50 gallons (200 liter) in one day

that sound travels five times faster underwater than it does through the air?

the chinese wall is 3969 miles (6350 Km) long.

the can opener was invented 48 years after the can.

that the undersea mountain Mauna Kea, Hawaii measured from the ocean floor

(10205 meter, 33480 feet) is taller than the worlds highest mountain Mt. Everest, Nepal (8848 meter, 29028 feet).


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.

a kangaroo can jump up to 29 feet (9 meter) far and up to 10 feet (3 meter) high.

it is impossible to lick your own elbow.

a cockroach can survive 9 days without head

winds in a tornado can reach speeds of 200 mph (320 km/h)

light travels through space at 186000 miles per second(300000 km per second) so at

the average distance from earth to the sun of 93,026,724 miles it takes the light

about 500 seconds (or 8 minutes and 20 seconds) to get here

211 g sugar or 36 g salt can be dissolved in 100 g water (at 77 degree F or 25

degree C)

ants do not sleep

that a hippopotamus weights 3000 to 4500 kg (6600 to 9900 lbs) , watch your feet

over 70% of people who read this try to lick their elbow


90


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3.5 USING SPACE AND TIME RELATIONSHIPS

Space and time are two very basic concepts in physical science. Using

space and time relationships involves the ability to discern and describe

directions, spatial arrangements, motion and speed, symmetry and rate of

change. This skill can describe the changes in parameter with time. It

involves identify shape and movement according to time. Other

parameters are location, direction, size, volume, weight and mass. This

skill can be developed by paying attention to the sequence and position in

which the events takes place. For example, looking at the phases of the

moon, observing the physical changes of ice cubes etc.

Why do we need to master this skill?

It makes us realise that changes occur in relation to time.

It helps us arrange events in its chronological sequence.

You have mastered this skill when you are able to:

Describe location with reference to time

Describe change of direction with reference to time

Describe change in shape with reference to time

Describe change in size with reference to time

Arrange events chronologically

Ascertain change by referring to rate of change

Ascertain position of an object and describe its position in space

Describe the change of an object seen from a different position

Describe the relationship between distance of a moving object and

time

(CDC, 1994)


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Activity 1

Roll a ball across the floor to a wall. How fast can you roll it? How slow

can you roll it?

Activity 2

How long does it take you to count from 1 to 25, counting as fast as you

can?

1. Highest daily temperature recorded each day for a week is shown on the

data table.

Sunday

8°C

Monday

7°C

Tuesday

0°C

Wednesday

15°C

Thursday

23°C

Friday

21°C

Saturday

19°C

Which of the following statements is correct?

A. Monday showed the lowest temperature.

B. It snowed all day on Friday.

C. The highest temperature was recorded on Thursday.

D. The temperature was higher on Wednesday than on Saturday.


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2. Anas carried out an investigation using a pendulum P. He recorded the time required for the pendulum to make 20 oscillations with different lengths of strings.

string P Below are the times taken. 10 cm = 18 seconds, 20 cm = 36 seconds,

30 cm = 55 seconds, 40 cm = 73 seconds

a) Suggest a suitable device to measure the time required for 20 oscillations.

b) Name the science process skill involved when Anas recorded the time taken during the investigation.


94

1. List down topics from the curriculum specification that represents space-

time relationship

2. Plan a suitable activity from the list.

3. Carry out the planned activity.

Plan and do ―The Sun Clock Activity‖

MAKING A SUN CLOCK

Before there were clocks, people used shadow to tell time

Materials:

Chalk

A4 paper

Plasticine


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Method:

1. Place your chalk stand up in the middle of the paper using plasticine.

2. Mark the shadow of the pencil every hour until you get at least 8 readings.

3. From your results, construct a graph that represents the time versus the length of the shadow.

From the graph, answer the following:

1. What time did the shadow disappear?

2. When was the shadow became longer than the pencil?


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3.7 INFERRING

We appreciate our environment better when we are able to interpret and explain

things happening around us. We learn to recognize patterns and expect these

patterns to reoccur under same conditions. Much of our behaviour is based on

the inferences we make about events. Scientists formulate hypotheses based on

the inferences they make regarding investigations. As teachers we often make

inferences about why our students behave as they do. Learning itself is an

inference made from observed changes in learned behaviour.

Courtesy of Learning and Assessing Science Process Skills, 1995, p 69.

While an observation is an experience perceived through one or more of the

senses, an inference is an explanation or interpretation of the observation. This

process is often conditioned by our past experiences. New experiences only

make sense to us when we are able to link them to understandings we already

have. To infer means to construct a link between what is observed directly and

what is already known from past experience.


97

For example, it is raining and you see a bright light flash outside the window.

Almost immediately after the flash, you hear a loud crashing noise. You then say

that lighting has struck something not very far away. This is your inference to the

observations of the flash of light and the loud noise. It is based on past

experience with lighting and thunder and includes the knowledge that time

interval between the flash and the sound is a measure of how far away the

lightning struck.

An inference is NOT a guess since a guess is an opinion formed from little or no

evidence. When inferring, it is helpful to follow these steps:

Make as many observations about the object or event as possible.

Recall from your experiences as much relevant information about the object

or event as you can and integrate that information with what you observed.

State each inference in such a way that clearly distinguishes it from other

kinds of statements.

―From what I observed I infer that ……… ―

―The evidence suggests that ……. may have happened‖

―A possible explanation for what I see is that … ―

―From what I observed I conclude that …‖

INFERRING

What is already known by past experiences?

What is directly observed through the

senses?


98

Often, after having drawn inferences from a set of observations, new information

becomes available that may cause you to rethink your original inferences. They

may sometimes reinforce your inferences. At other times, however, additional

information may cause you to modify or even reject inferences that you once

thought to be useful. New observations lead to adjusting patterns of experience

to accommodate the new information.

The following are some observations and inferences statements that someone

else made about the coin (Table 1).

Observations Inferences

This coin is the colour of copper

I infer it is made of copper

This coin has the date 1994 marked on it

The coin probably was made in 1994

This coin has raised letters on it and they are clear and uniform in size

I infer the coin was made by machine

When I drop the coin on the table it makes a ―clinking‖ sound

I infer the coin is solid rather than hollow

The coin has a green substance on one side

Perhaps the coin sat in water and become corroded

The coin has one long deep scratch on one side

Maybe someone deliberately gouged the coin with a sharp instrument

Courtesy of Learning and Assessing Science Process Skills, 1995, p 73.

Table 1: Observations and Inferences Statements About A Coin


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You can also make inferences about events. Every inference must be based on

an observation, so you will first be making careful observations and then

interpreting or explaining those observations. These interpretations of

observations are inferences.

You are making inferences when you are …..

1. Using information from observations to make reasonable early conclusions.

2. Making various possible interpretations from single observation.

3. Able to identify the limitations of inferences.

4. Testing the accuracy of inferences through additional observations.

5. Using inferences as a tool to determine the appropriate additional

observations.

(CDC, 1994)

Activity 1 Practice Making Inference - Footprints The diagram below shows three strips of footprints one after another, i.e. strip 1

followed by strip 2 and then strip 3. The series of footprints is seen on a beach.

The dots around the prints in strip 2 shows that the shoes have left deep prints.


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1.

2.

3.

Based on the diagram, write your observations on each strip of prints and record

your inferences. You can make more than one inference in each case.

OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Strip 1

Strip 2

Strip 3


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Compare your list of inferences with those of your friends. Do you feel your

inferences are better? Why?

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________


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Activitiy 2

Observe the diagrams below. For each line draw the shape that follows in the box on the right.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Questions 1. How do you arrive at the answer for the shape that follows?

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________ 2. Does your experience help you to make the decision?

___________________________________________________________


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1) Below are some examples of observation statements and inferences

statements. Underline inference statements with a red pen.

a) The brass knob on that door is not bright and shiny.

b) I infer that the office is not used often

c) Someone may have spilled a toxic substance there

d) There is a spot in my front yard where grass does not grow.

e) I see that iodine turns purple when I put it on a potato chip.

f) It can be inferred that the chip has starch in it.

g) Maybe either the book is old or that the paper was dyed yellow to give it an old appearance.

h) The pages in this book are yellow

i) Through the window I see the flag waving

j) It must be windy out

k) The fish are floating on top of the tank.

l) Perhaps no one fed the fish

m) Maybe it has become contaminated

n) My drinking water smells like rotten eggs.

o) The cabbages that were growing in my garden are gone and there are droppings on the ground.

p) That is evidence that rabbits have been there.

2) Observe these tracks in the snow in Figure 3.7. Based on the observations

you have made, write down your inferences. (To help you think more logically about the picture, it has been divided into three frames.)

Get a textbook. Try and practice all the suggestions that was discussed above. Do you think it has help you to

remember better?


104

Courtesy of INVESTIGATING THE EARTH, Fourth Edition

by American Geological Institute.

Copyright 1984 by Houghton Mifflin Company.

Reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 3.7: Tracks in The Snow

TUTORIAL INFERRING EXERCISES

Present a situation to your peers and let them make their inferences. Comment on their answers.

Carry out the ―Inferring Exercises‖ and discuss the answers in

class

Further reading on ways of making inferences and prepare a summary


105

INFERRING EXERCISES Read the following observations. Then make inferences that explain each observation. Remember, there may be more than one logical explanation. Observation 1: You observe that the sky at noon is darkening. Your inference:___________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Observation 2: You principal interrupts class and call a student from the room. Your inference:___________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

Observation 3: All middle school students are bringing lunch from home. Your inference:___________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Observation 4: A former rock-and-roll band member has poor hearing. Your inference:___________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Observation 5: You leave a movie theater and see that the street is wet. Your inference:____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Observation 6: During a handshake, you feel that the palm of the individual‘s hand is rough and hard. Your inference:____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________


106

Observation 7: The classroom lights are off. Your inference:____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Observation 8: A siren is heard going past the school. Your inference:____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________


107

TOPIC 4 INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

SYNOPSIS Now that you have mastered the basic science process skills, you are

now ready to learn the skills that lead to experimenting or conducting

investigations. The integrated science process skills include

identifying and controlling variables, defining operationally,

interpreting data, formulating and testing hypothesis and

experimenting. Learning these skills empowers you to answer many

questions as you already have the tools to interpret what you observe

and are able to design investigations to test your own ideas.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


1. Identify the variables of an investigation

2. Classify variables as manipulated or responding

3. State how variables are operationally defined in an investigation when

given a description of the investigation

4. Construct operational definition for variables

5. Organise data that have been collected to simplify interpretation

6. Draw conclusions from the the data

7. Identify hypotheses from a given lists of statements

8. Explain why variables are important in the process of hypothesizing

9. Write a hypothesis using two variables

10. Define (or select a definition for) a hypothesis

11. Compare and contrast a hypothesis with a research question

12. Define a scientific investigation as either a survey or an experiment

13. Write an experiment report


108

TOPIC’S FRAMEWORK

Figure 4 : Content Overview

INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROCESS SKILL

IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES

DEFINING OPERATIONALLY

FORMULATING AND TESTING HYPOTHESIS

EXPERIMENT

INTEPRETING DATA


109

CONTENTS

4.1 IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES

By studying simple actions and reactions, such as how raisins act in a baking

soda solution, you have learned that observing and inferring are the basis of

science. But actions and reactions in the natural world are often complex.

Sometimes they are so large (like the explosion of a volcano), or so small (like

the movement of a Euglena), or so distant (like the birth of a star), or so spread

over time (like the movement of a glacier) that it is impossible for the human mind

to understand them in their entirety.

The scientific approach to understanding such events is a process that breaks

complex events into parts can be studied and understood. These parts of an

event or system are called variables. Variables are factors, conditions, and / or

relationships that can change or be changed in an event or system. In order to

learn about scientific investigation, you first need to learn the skill associated with

identifying and manipulating variables.

A variable is something that can vary or change. What are the variables in the

following statements?

Statement 1: The time an athlete takes to run a kilometer depends on the

number of training a person gets.

Variables: Time to run a kilometre

Number of training

Statement 2: The higher the temperature of water, the faster an egg will cook.

Variables: Temperature of water

Time needed for an egg to cook


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Controlling variable is identifying all variables i.e. aspects that can influence

results of an experiments, and conduct the experiment by manipulating only one

variable while keeping the other variables constant. The investigation is to find

the effect of one variable on another. There are 3 types of variables.

1. Manipulated Variable (MV): Factor or condition that is manipulated or

changed to test its effect on the experiment.

In the above statements:

Time to run a kilometer

Temperature of water

This is also known as independent.

2. Responding Variables (RV): The experiment result that responds or

reacts to a factor or condition changed.

In the above statements:

Amount of exercise

Time to cook the egg

This is also known as dependent variable.

3. Constant Variable (CV): Variables that are controlled or kept constant.

Examples:

Type of exercise

Size of the egg

Independent variable is another name for manipulated variable. It is

independently selected by the experimenter to be manipulated. Dependent

variable is watched by the experimenter and will respond to the manipulated or

independent variable if there is a relationship. When we plot information on a

graph the manipulated variable always is plotted on the X - axis and the

responding variable is always plotted on the Y - axis.


111

ACTIVITY 1

The number of nails picked up by an electromagnet will be increased if more

batteries are put in the circuit. Suppose an investigation was carried out on the

problem above. What would the variables be?

ACTIVITY 2

A student wants to test how the mass of a paper aeroplane affects the distance it

will fly. Paper clips are added before the test flight. As each paper clips are

added, the plane is thrown to determine how far it will fly. Design a simple

experiment for this activity. What would the variables be?


112

1. For each of the following statements or descriptions identify the manipulated

variable (MV) and responding variable (RV).

(a) Students in a science class carried out an investigation in which a flashlight

was pointed at a screen. They wished to find out if the distance from the light to

the screen had any effect on the size of the illuminated area.

(b) The Forestry Department has been counting the number of foxes in Pahang

state. Will the number of foxes has any effect on the rabbit population?

(c) The score on the final test depends on the number of subordinate skills

attained.

(d) More bushels of potatoes will be produced if more fertilizer is used on the

soil .

2. You are given a constantan wire, a switch, an ammeter (0 -1 A), a voltmeter

(0 – 5 V), a rheostat, 3 batteries, a cell holder, and connecting wires. Conduct an

experiment to investigate the effect of length on the resistance of a conductor.

State three variables in the investigation.

1. Do the ―Identifying and Controlling Variable Activity‖. Discuss your

experimental results in class.

2. Carry out ―Helicopter Happening‖ experiment and compare your results

with your peers.


113

Examine the textbooks for year 1 - 6 and list down alternative terms for variables

that are currently used.

TUTORIAL 1

IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES

Materials: (for each group of four)

4 sugar cubes

Coarse sugar

4 beakers

paper towels or sponges

2 spoons of different sizes,

Stopwatches

Methods:

1. Each should be given 4 sugar cubes, 4 beakers, and 2 spoons. 2. Pour 100 ml of tap water into each beaker simultaneously. 3. Dissolve each cube of sugar in the beakers. In one beaker there will be a

cube and water, one will have a cube, spoon (for stirring), and water, another will have coarse sugar and water, and the last will have coarse sugar, spoon (for stirring), and water.

4. Students predict which container will have the fastest rate of dissolving by using stop watch.

5. Talk about predictions (it's okay to have wrong predictions--happens all the time), graph the results of the experiments.


114

Are there different results? Were all the methods of experimentation the same? Explain.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Brainstorm a number of manipulated/independent variables that could have had an effect upon the results of your experiment (the rate of dissolution). Put suggestions on a chart.

Independent Variable Prediction Exp. Notes Observation

spoon size . . .

amount of water . . .

placement of spoon . . .

old vs. new cubes . . .

different solvents . . .

You may find some discrepancies in the above experiment. How would you suggest to make the experiment a better one? Discuss.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________


115

TUTORIAL 2

Helicopter Happening

Materials:

Scissors

Ruler

Worksheet

Helicopter pattern on next page Method: 1. Carefully cut out the pattern for the rotating object and follow the assembly

directions.

2. Test the device to find how it works. Record your observations and inferences ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

What are some possible variables that could affect how it flies?

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________


116

Rotating Object for “Helicopter Happening”


117

4.2 DEFINING OPERATIONALLY

The method or procedure used to measure a variable is called an operational

definition. Thus an operational definition tells what operation is performed and

observed and how it is measured. If you can measure a variable directly using

standard systems of measurement, you do not need to define it operationally. Eg:

depth-ruler, temperature-thermometer, time-stopwatch.

Defining operationally involves finding equivalent ways of measuring something

indirectly that cannot be conveniently measured directly. Eg. pendulum activity-

measure period in terms of number of swings per 15 seconds because time of

one swing could not be measured conveniently.

Different investigators may use different operationally definition for the same

variable. Example: ―investigation to test the effects of vitamin E on the endurance

of a person‖.

The variable ―endurance of a person‖ could be defined operationally many

different ways;

The number of hours a person could stay awake.

The distance a person could run without stopping.

The number of jumping jacks a person could do before tiring.

Operational definition should be explicit enough that another investigator

could carry out the measurement without any further information from the

investigator.


118

ACTIVITY 1:

A study was done to determine if safety advertising had any effect on automobile

accidents. Different numbers of billboards were put up in Bukit Mertajam over a

period of four months to see if the number of people hospitalized because of auto

accidents was affected. In January, five billboards carried safety messages; in

February there were ten, in March there fifteen; and in April there were twenty.

During each of these four months, a record of the number of people hospitalized

because of accidents was measured.

Identify the MV and RV

Manipulated Variable: Safety advertising

Responding Variable: Automobile Accidents

How was each variable operationally defined?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


119

ACTIVITY 2:

A study was done to determine the effect that exercise has on pulse rate.

Teacher trainee rode bikes for different numbers of kilometers and then their

pulse rate was measured. One group rode 10 km, a second group rode 20 km, a

third group rode 30 km and a fourth group rode 40 km. Following the exercise the

pulse rate was immediately measured by counting the pulse for one minute.

Identify the MV and RV.

Manipulated Variable: Amount of exercise

Responding Variable: Pulse rate

How was each variable operationally defined?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


120

1.

What is the operational definition of the slope of the land?

(A) mass of the eroded soil

(B) depth of the ditch cut by the water

(C) mass of water used in the stream table

(D) height to which the end of the stream table was raised

2. An investigation is carried out to see how the initial temperature of a liquid

affects the amount of water evaporated.

Describe at least 3 ways where the amount of evaporation could be

operationally defined.

Tutorial 1 Exercises on operational definitions. Tutorial 2 Discuss on operational definition exercises.

Examine the textbooks for year 1 - 6 and list down some examples of operational definitions.

A study was conducted to see the amount of erosion was affected by the slope of the land. The end of the stream table was raised to four different heights (a stream table is a plastic box containing sand). At each height, a litre of water was poured in at one end of the stream table. After the water had run over the soil, the depth of the ditch cut by the water was measured.


121

TUTORIAL 1

DEFINING VARIABLES OPERATIONALLY

1. A teacher is interested in investigating the effect of homework on test results. What are the two operational definitions for the variable ―homework?‖ ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

2. A shopkeeper wants to find out if window posters affect sales. Give two operational definitions of the variable ―window posters.‖ ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

3. A student wants to measure which pizza toppings her friends prefer. What is an operational definition of the variable ―pizza topping preference?‖

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________


122

What is an Operational Definition?

One of the most important operational decisions a scientist must make is to

determine how measurement of the variable will be made. The method used to

measure a variable is called an operational definition. An operational definition

indicates the way a measurement will be performed. Once a scientist has

decided on a method, that method must be reported to other scientists, so they

can also test the investigation results. Any scientist can read an operational

definition and easily understand or perform the same measurement. The

examples below shoe operational definitions of variables.

Examples One

A student wants to test the effects of vitamin C on the health of students in her

class. The variables ‖health of students‖ could be defined in the following ways.

The number of colds experienced during a month

The number of days absent due to sickness in a month

The number of people with coughs in a month

Example Two

A student wants to test the effect of ―don‘t Litter‖ posters on the trash problem at

his school. The variable ―trash problem‖ could be defined in the following ways.

The number of candy wrappers on the playground

The number of bags of trash collected

The number of aluminium cans in the courtyard

Your task is to think of operational definitions that might be used to measure

variables in several situations. Before you begin, let‘s look at an example.


123

A student wants to measure the absorbency of paper towels, so absorbency is

the variable. The student must create an operational definition for measuring the

absorbency of paper towels. He develops three possible operational definitions.

The Dunk: Measure the amount of water that remains after a crumpled

paper towel has been placed in 25 ml of water for five minutes.

The Pour: Measure the amount of water that collects after 25 ml of water

has been poured through a crumpled paper towel.

The Lift: Measure the height that water reaches after the end of a folded

towel has been inserted in water for 15 minutes.

Think of operational definitions that might be used to measure variables in the

following situations.

1. A student is interested in magnets. He wants to measure the strength of

his favourite magnet.

Operational Definition of the variable ―magnet strength‖

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

2. A student is interested in investigating the germination (sprouting) of

seeds.

Operational Definition of the variable ―germination‖

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________


124

3. A student wants to measure which soft drink her classmates prefer.

Operational definition of the variable ―soft drink preference‖

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

4. A student wants to find out how interested her classmates are in reading

books about science.

Operational definition of the variable ―interesting reading books about

science‖

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

5. A student wants to find out if study affects science grades.

Operational definition of the variable ―study‖

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Operational definition of the variable ―science grade‖

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________


125

4.3 FORMULATING AND TESTING HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to

some phenomenon or event. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which

may include a prediction. A hypotheses should not be confused with a theory.

Theories are general explanations based on a large amount of data. For

example, the theory of evolution applies to all living things and is based on wide

range of observations. However, there are many things about evolution that are

not fully understood such as gaps in the fossil record. Many hypotheses have

been proposed and tested.

Hypotheses are predictions about the relationship between variables

Indicators for Making Hypotheses (CDC, 1994)

• Suggest an explanation that is in line with proof

• Suggest an explanation that is in line with science principles or concepts

• Use previous knowledge to come up with an explanation

• Be aware that there is more than one way to explain a happening or event

• Be aware that the explanation is only a suggestion

When Are Hypotheses Used? The key word is testable. That is, you will perform

a test of how two variables might be related. This is when you are doing a real

experiment. You are testing variables. Usually, a hypothesis is based on some

previous observation such as noticing that in November many trees undergo

color changes in their leaves and the average daily temperatures are dropping.

Are these two events connected? How?

Any laboratory procedure you follow without a hypothesis is really not an

experiment. It is just an exercise or demonstration of what is already known.

When do you construct hypothesis?

• Before any investigation or experiment is conducted

• The hypothesis provides guidance to an investigation about what data to

collect


126

Formulating Hypotheses?

- stating the proposed solutions or expected outcomes for experiments. These

proposed solutions to a problem must be testable.

How Are Hypotheses Written?

1. Chocolate may cause pimples.

2. Salt in soil may affect plant growth.

3. Plant growth may be affected by the color of the light.

4. Bacterial growth may be affected by temperature.

5. Ultra violet light may cause skin cancer.

6. Temperature may cause leaves to change color.

All of these are examples of hypothesis because they use the tentative word

"may.". However, their form is not particularly useful. Using the word may does

not suggest how you would go about proving it. If these statements had not been

written carefully, they may not have even been hypotheses at all. For example, if

we say "Trees will change color when it gets cold." we are making a prediction.

Or if we write, "Ultraviolet light causes skin cancer." could be a conclusion. One

way to prevent making such easy mistakes is to formalize the form of the

hypothesis.

Instructional Implication:

• statement of relationship that might exist between two variables—If . . .

then

• formal scientific experiments contain a hypothesis & control variable(s)

Problem 1: What factors determine the rate at which an object falls through air?

Possible variables: a) volume of object

b) surface area of object

c) length of fall

d) weight of object


127

Construct hypothesis:

a) If the volume of an object increases, then the rate at which it falls through

air decreases

b) If the surface area of object increases, then the rate at which it falls

through air decreases

c) If the longer(or farther) an object falls through air, then the faster it will fall

d) If the weight an object has, then the faster it will fall through air.

Problem 2: Why is it warmer in house then another?

Possible variables: a) outside temperature

b) location of house

c) slope of roof

d) number openings to the outside

Construct hypothesis:

a) The higher outside temperature, the higher the temperature inside the

house

b) The nearer the house is to the equator, the higher the temperature inside

the house

c) The steeper the roof, the higher the temperature inside the house

d) The more openings to the outside, the lower the temperature inside the

house

Activity 1

1. Cut one end of one of the straw to form a point and blow into this end of

the straw to produce a sound. Observe the pitch of the sound

produced(high or low)

2. Question: How does the length of the straw affect the pitch of the sound

produced?


128

Your hypothesis(guess):

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Trim the five remaining straws to different lengths. Then cut one end of

each straw, blow into this end, and observe the pitch of the sound

produced.

4. Arrange your six straws in order from the highest to the lowest pitch and

tape the straws in the box below.

Highest

Λ

V

Lowest

5. Did your investigation prove your hypothesis?

…………………………………………………………………………………

ACTIVITY 2

For each of the following problem list three variables which could effect

the responding variable. State a hypoyhesis for each variable listed.

Why doesn‟t an animal breathe at the same rate all the time?

a) Variable 1:……………………………………………………

Hypothesis 1:………………………………………………….

b) Variable 2:……………………………………………………..

Hypothesis 2:………………………………………………….


129

c) Variable 3:……………………………………………………..

Hypothesis 3:…………………………………………………

1. What could be her hypothesis?

(A) The plant makes its own food.

(B) After a few weeks the plant becomes taller.

(C) The amount of water affects the growth of a plant.

(D) The growth of plant can be measured by counting the number of

leave

2. You are given a constantan wire, a switch, an ammeter (0 -1 A), a

voltmeter (0 – 5 V), a rheostat, 3 batteries, a cell holder, and

connecting wires. Conduct an experiment to investigate the effect of

length on the resistance of a conductor.

(a) State three variables in the investigation

………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………….

(b) State one hypothesis that can be made for this investigation

……………………………………………………………………

Sariah wants to find the answer to the problem; ―What affects the rate at which a plant grows?‖


130

What is the trend of change on the length of constantan wire during

the investigation?

…………………………………………………………………...

Choose five experiments from the curriculum specification, construct a

hypothesis for each experiment.

www.accessexcellence.org/LC/TL/filson/writhypo.html

Ostlund,K.L.(1992). Science Process Skills:Assessing hands-on student

performance. Menlo Park, CA:Addison Wesley Publishing Company

Shepardson,D.P.,& Britisch,S.J.(2001). The role of children‟s journals in

elementary school science activities, Journal of Research in science

Teaching,38(1),43-69.

http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/TL/filson/writhypo.html


131

4.4 INTERPRETING DATA

In the investigation you may have collected some qualitative data then you have

to explain the data patterns or relationships based on information gathered. The

first step in interpreting data is to decide what data you want together. This

comes from the hypothesis you devise. You may do the investigation mentally,

visualizing what will happen and deciding what kinds of information you will need

to have to tell why it happened. How will you organize your investigation so you

can interpret the result?

This skill is used when:

• Make a conclusion from the collected data

• Identify the pattern from the collected data

• State the relation from the collected data

• Make a statement from the collected data

• State the conclusion is supported by the data.

Why this skill is important?

• To get as many as possible the information from graph, table dan figure

• To get the relation among the variables

• To make conclusion.

One of the best ways to organize data from interpretation is to put the data in

visual form such as graph, chart or histogram. Sample data tables with computer

-generated graphs or data and calculators are very useful aids to constructing

graph.


132

Activity 1

1. Look at the following table of information from Consumer Reports,

September 2009.

Paper Towels

Paper

towel

brands

Price per

roll

Towels

per roll

Squ

are

feet

per

roll

Cost per

towel(price

/ towels)

Cost per

sq.Ft(price/sq.ft.per

roll)

Waja 92 cent 50 40

Kelisa 83 cent 90 71

Viva 96 cent 88 73

Wira 77cent 70 73

Kancil 74 cent 124 88

Saga 71cent 115 79

Rusa 67cent 100 74

Kembara 76cent 102 72

Myvi 59 cent 110 75

Tiara 76 cent 110 77

i. Calculate the cost per towel of each of the brands

ii. Calculate the cost per square foot of each brand of paper towels.

iii. Which brand costs the least per towel?.......................................

iv. Which brand costs the most per towel?......................................

v. Which brand costs the least per square foot?...............................

vi. Which brand costs the most per square foot?..............................

vii. Which brand is the best buy?......................................................

Why?............................................................................................


133

ACTIVITY 2

Read the table below and answer the questions about the information.

Name(Year of latest

activity)

Location Height(in meter)

Colima(1986) Mexico 4268

Redoubt(1966) Alaska 3108

Iliamna(1978) Alaska 3075

Mount St Helen(1986) Washington 2950

Shissaldin(1981) Aleutan Islands 2861

Veniaminof(1884) Alaska 2507

Pavlof(1984) Aleutan Islands 2504

El Chicon(1983) Mexico 2225

Makushin(1980) Aleutan Islands 2036

Trident(1963) Alaska 1832

Great sitkan(1974) Aleutan Islands 1740

Akutan(1980) Aleutan Islands 1303

Kiska(1969) Aleutan Islands 1303

Sequam(1977) Alaska 1054

i. How high is the highest active

volcanoe?..............................................

ii. How high is the lowest active

volcanoe?................................................

iii. What is the difference in height between the highest and lowest

volcano?...............


134

iv. What is the most recent date of volcanic

activity? ................................

v. What is the least recent date of volcanic

activity?.................................

vi. How many years passed between the most recent activity and the

least recent activity?..............................

1. The result of an experiment is shown in Table 1.

Length of stick (cm) Length of shadow (cm)

10 5

20 12

30 22

40 29

50 40

Table 1

Which of the following is correct?

(A) The length is measured in meter.

(B) The length of the stick decreases.

(C) The length of the shadow decreases constantly.

(D) The length of stick increases with the length of shadow.


135

2. The table below shows time taken in days for butterfly and mosquito to

develop from one stage to another. Give your interpretation from data

given.

Butterfly Mosquito

Stages Time taken (days) Time taken (days)

Egg to larvae 10 3

Larvae to pupa 21 10

Pupa to adult 21 2

Tutorial 1

(1) Find some food wrappers to class

(2) Carefully, identify each food label and by using a table categorize the

ingredients.

Do you find any ingredients that you do not recognize? Do you think

processed foods are good alternative in our lives? Explain.

Tutorial 2

1) Find any data from newspaper, magazines, internet on any topic.

2) Identify independent and dependent variables from the collected data.

3) Draw a graph to represent your data.


136

Ostlund,K.L.(1992). Science Process Skills:Assessing hands-on student


Shepardson,D.P.,& Britisch,S.J.(2001). The role of children‟s journals in



137

4.5 EXPERIMENTING

One way how we can conduct investigation is by doing experiment. In an

experiment, we ask a question on how a variable may affect another variable.

Ideally an experiment is carried out to find out an answer or solution to a question

or problem. A true experiment involves hypothesis testing and variable control.

In experimenting, we put together both the basic and integrated science process

skills. An experiment may start as a question. We may consider the following

steps to answer this question:

Identifying variables

Formulating hypothesis

Identifying factors to be held constant

Making operational definitions

Designing investigation

Conducting repeated trails

Collecting data

Interpreting data

Natural phenomena are complex and usually involve many factors or variables.

In order to study these natural events systematically, we break down these

events by different variables so that we can look at how one variable affects

another variable.

Hypothesis is written to predict how one variable can affect another variable. A

method of investigation in devised to test the hypothesis. Operational definitions

for the variables are determined and experiment is conducted. Thoughtful

Experimenting is the scientific process in

which we investigate the effect of changing

one variable on the change in a different

variable


138

observations and data are recorded. Tables and graphs can be used to

communicate these results. Finally inferences, conclusions and

recommendations can be made.

ACTIVITY 1

1. Icy Finger

a) Problem statement:How does cold environment affect our sense of touch?

b) Identifying variables to be manipulated: Warm hand and cold hand

Results to be measured: Time taken to complete the task with hand before

and after being immersed in ice water

c) Identifying factors to be held constant: Number of toothpicks to be inserted

into a container through a small hole

d) Formulating hypothesis: Time taken to insert all 15 toothpicks into a

container through a small hole is longer after the hand is immersed as

compared to time taken for similar activity before hand is immersed in cold

water.

e) Making operational definitions: To measure sense of touch, time taken to

insert 15 pieces of toothpick through a small hole into a container is

compared before and after our hand is dipped in ice water for 30 seconds

f) Designing investigation:

What do I need?

5 toothpicks, a container of ice cubes, a small plate, a plastic container

with lid, 1 thumbtack, 1 stopwatch

What do I do?

i) Break a toothpick into three small pieces. Do this for all the 5

toothpicks

ii) Use a thumbtack to make a small hole on the lid of the

plastic container. The small hole must be big enough for the

toothpicks to pass through.


139

iii) Start the stopwatch as you begin to pick up small toothpicks

from the plate and insert into the plastic container through

the small hall. How long do you take to finish inserting all the

15 broken toothpicks?

iv) Now dip the same hand into a container of ice for 30

seconds. Dry your hand, pick up the broken toothpicks and

insert them into the plastic container in the same manner.

How much time do you take to finish all the toothpicks?

g) Conducting repeated trials: Carry out the experiment at least three times

to find average time taken

h) Collecting data

Time taken (seconds)

1st trial 2nd trial 3rd trial Average

Hand not

dipped in ice

water

Hand

dipped in ice

water

i) Analyse and interpreting data:

The average time taken to complete the task:

before hand is dipped in ice water is _____ seconds

after hand is dipped in ice water is _____ seconds

When the hand is cold, there will be less blood flow to the skin. The skin

becomes less sensitive, which dulls the sense of touch. That is why it is

harder to pick up the toothpicks.

j) Make a conclusion that answer the problem statement.

Hypothesis is accepted. Time taken to insert all 15 toothpicks into a

container through a small hole is longer after the hand is immersed as


140

compared to time taken for similar activity before hand is immersed in cold

water.

ACTIVITY 2

Best Facial Wipe

a) Problem statement: Which brand of facial wipe is the best?

b) Identifying variables to be manipulated and results to be

measured/observed

c) Identifying factors to be held constant

d) Formulating hypothesis: Smart guess that relates manipulated variable

with responding variable.

e) Making operational definitions: How do you define ‗best‘ facial wipe?

f) Designing investigation: List down the steps to run the experiment. Figure

may be included to give better illustration.

g) Conducting repeated trials: Carry out the experiment at least three times

to find average reading

h) Collecting data: Use a table to record data

i) Analyse and interpreting data: Communicate results in table/chart/figure

and attempt to explain the results obtained

j) Make a conclusion that answer the problem statement.


141

a. List down the basic and integrated science process skills.

b. Identify a problem which you would investigate. Design an

experiment to find the answer to the question. Here are some

examples:

What affects the rate at which a person breathes?

What affects how far a rubber band will fly?

Can a plant get too much fertilizer?

Is there a relationship between the size of seed and

its germination time?

How waterproof are paints?

Do ―The Pendulum Experiment‖ Discussion on the Pendulum Experiment results

Read ―Guide to Science Experiments‖ and plan your own investigation.

Read Skamp (2004), Appendix 2.3 pg 83


142

Skamp, K. (Ed.), (2004) Teaching primary science constructively (2nd ed.).

Melbourne, Australia: Thomson Learning.

Bailer, J., Ramig, J.E., Ramsey J.M. (1995). Teaching Science

Process Skills. USA: Good Apple.

Fiel, R.L., Funk, H.J., Rezba, R. J., Sprague C., (1995). Learning and

Assessing SCIENCE Process Skills (3rd edition). Iowa: Kendall / Hunt

Publishing Company.

Klindworth, A. (2004). Science Experiments you can eat. Melbourne:

Deakin University.

Martin, D. J. (2001). Constructing Early Childhood Science. Albany, New

York: Thompson Learning

Poh Swee Hiang. (2005). Pedagogy of Science. Volume 1.Kuala

Lumpur: Kumpulan Budiman Sdn. Bhd.

Tytler, T. (2000) The Science of Toys and Tricks. Activities Book.

Melbourne: Deakin University.

www.longwood.edu/cleanva/images/sec6.processskills.pdf

www.pdfgeni.com/book/science-skills-worksheet-experimenting-skills-

pdf.html

www.kids-science-experiments.com/

www.surfnetkids.com/science_experiments.htm

www.stevespanglerscience.com/experiments/

http://www.longwood.edu/cleanva/images/sec6.processskills.pdf

http://www.pdfgeni.com/book/science-skills-worksheet-experimenting-skills-pdf.html

http://www.pdfgeni.com/book/science-skills-worksheet-experimenting-skills-pdf.html

http://www.kids-science-experiments.com/


143

TUTORIAL

Pendulum Experiment

Materials:

String

Ring stand

Washers (or any object that can be used to vary mass)

Meter stick

Second hand

Worksheet (on next page)

Experiment report model

Experiment report

A pendulum is an object connected to a fixed point by a string, wire, or rope.

When set in motion, a pendulum swings back and forth. You have heard about

Galileo and Foucault, whose pendulum experiments made important

contributions to science. Visualize a pendulum. What variables might affect its

swing? List them below.

Variable 1 _____________________________________________________

Variable 2 _____________________________________________________

Variable 3 _____________________________________________________

Design a series of experiments that will test how each of the variables listed

above might affect a pendulum‘s swing or frequency. The frequency of a

pendulum is the time it takes to make a complete cycle (from starting point back

to starting point). You will need at least three experiments – one for each

variable. This will require you to write a hypothesis for each experiment.

Controlling all variables not being tested is extremely important in this series of

experiments.


144

Your Own Investigation

Here is an opportunity to apply all the science process skills you have learned.

You can get the information by giving a questionnaire and conduct a survey to

answer those questions.

Your task

1. Ask a question about a physical or biological event or relationship. Make

sure the topic offers the potential for experimentation. Consumer testing

is a good area for first-time projects. The best topics can arise from your

hobbies, interests, activities, and skills.

2. Decide whether you will perform an experiment or a survey.

3. Complete the survey plan. Discuss your plan with your lecturer online and

get the approval.

4. List the potential variables. Choose a manipulated variable and a

responding variable. Operationally define the variables so they can be

measured.

5. Write a specific research question.

6. Write a hypothesis that provide an exact focus for the survey.

7. Conduct a library research and write a review of the literature about your

topic. A literature review summarizes information about your topic into a

report.


145

8. Design the survey to collect data that will answer the research question

and hypotheses. Remember to control all variables except the

manipulated and responding variables.

9. Gather materials. Remember, more data is better than less data.

10. Compile the results. Quantitative data should be recorded in data tables

and you may want to include graphs to help with interpretation. Don‘t

forget to record qualitative data whenever necessary.

11. Interpret the data. Write conclusions, inferences, and discussion. Make

recommendations. Don‘t be too general. For example, if you test only

one type of radish seed, your interpretation must refer to only that variety

of radish seed.

12. Prepare a final report using the survey report. You will be

held accountable for all critical information and techniques.

Common Problems in conducting survey

Low sample size

Lack of control of everything but the manipulated and responding

variables.

Inaccurate measurement.

Surveyor bias. Keep an open mind.

Population selection bias.

Suggestions For Your Topic

Which pill design – tablet, caplet, or capsule – are preferred by most

students?


146

Which bottle designs are most childproof or tamperproof?

Which heats liquids faster – gas, electric, or microwave heat sources?

How does colour affect the choice of drinks for students?

Experiment Plan and Approval

Investigation Topic

Manipulated Variable

Responding Variable

Research Question

Hypothesis

Data Collection Plan

How will you control all variables except the manipulated and responding variable?

What special equipment will you need?

Lecturer‘s Approval

148

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149

PANEL PENULIS MODUL PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU SEKOLAH RENDAH

(SAINS PENDIDIKAN RENDAH)

NAMA KELAYAKAN

ROHANA BT MAHADZIR Pensyarah IPG Kampus Tuanku Bainun [email protected]

M. Ed(Pendidikan Sains), USM M. Sc(Psikologi Pendidikan), UPM B.Sc Ed (Hons), USM 7 tahun sebagai guru 14 tahun sebagai pensyarah

MARIAM BT. RODO Ketua Jabatan Sains IPG Kampus Tuanku Bainun [email protected]

M. Ed(Psikometrik dan Pengujian Pendidikan), USM (2004) B.A.(Chemistry), Iowa State University, USA(1983) Sijil Perguruan Lepasan Ijazah (1984) 12 tahun sebagai guru 13 tahun sebagai pensyarah

ZAKIAH BT. MOR Pensyarah Kanan IPG Kampus Tuanku Bainun [email protected]

M.Sc (Pengurusan) UUM 2000 B. Sc (Hons) (Kimia) UKM 1981 Diploma Pendidikan UKM 1981 11 Tahun sebagai guru 18 Tahun sebagai pensyarah

MOHD YAZIZ B. ISMAIL Pensyarah Kanan IPG Kampus Tuanku Bainun [email protected]

M. Ed (Psikometrik) USM 1997 B. Sc (Kep.) (Kimia) UPM 1987 Dip. Sains Dengan Pendidikan (Kimia/Matematik) UPM 1977 16 Tahun sebagai guru 16 Tahun sebagai pensyarah

149

NAMA KELAYAKAN

HAIRIAH BT. MUNIP Pensyarah IPG Kampus Tuanku Bainun [email protected]

M Ed (Biology) UPSI 2007 B Sc (Biotechnology) UPM 1990 Dip Ed (Mathematics & Science) IPTI.1992 12 tahun sebagai guru 3 tahun sebagai guru kanan sains 3 tahun sebagai pensyarah

DR KHOR KWAN HOOI Pensyarah IPG Kampus Tuanku Bainun [email protected]

Ph D (USM) 2010 M Sc (USM) 1998 B Sc & Ed (Hons) (UTM) 1986 21 tahun sebagai guru 3 tahun sebagai pensyarah

DR ZAINAL ABIDIN B. HJ. ABDul HAMID Pensyarah IPG Kampus Tuanku Bainun [email protected]

Ph D (Biologi) USM 2008 M Sc (Biologi) USM 1995 B Sc (Hons) (Hortikultur) UPM 1990 Dip Ed (Mathematics & Science) 1996 1 tahun sebagai guru 14 tahun sebagai pensyarah

SAIDI B. SAMSUDIN Pensyarah IPG Kampus Tuanku Bainun [email protected]

M. Ed (Curriculum studies),USM B.Ed (Physics,Psychology),USM 13 tahun sebagai guru 11 tahun sebagai pensyarah

149

NAMA KELAYAKAN

CHIN CHEE KEONG [email protected]

B.Sc.Ed. (Hons) USM 2002 8 tahun sebagai guru 6 bulan sebagai pensyarah

PANEL PEMURNI MODUL PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU SEKOLAH RENDAH

(XXX PENDIDIKAN RENDAH)

NAMA KELAYAKAN

(NAMA) (JAWATAN) (EMEL)

(KELULUSAN) PHD/SARJANA/SARJANA MUDA/DIPLOMA/SIJIL (PENGALAMAN KERJA)





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