Falsafah pendidikan Islam

Falsafah Pendidikan Islam ialah suatu usaha yang berterusan dalam menyampaikan

ilmu, membentuk kemahiran dan memupuk penghayatan Islam berdasarkan Al Quran dan

As Sunnah sepanjang hayat. Ia bermatlamat melahirkan insan yang berilmu, berkepribadian

mulia, berkemahiran dan bersikap positif untuk mencapai kebaikan di dunia dan

kesejahteraan abadi diakhirat. Matlamat utama Falsafah Pendidikan Islam ialah untuk

menghasilkan muslim yang berilmu, beriman, berketrampilan, beramal soleh dan berakhlak

mulia berdasarkan Al Quran dan As Sunnah ke arah menjadi hamba dan khalifah Allah yang

bertakwa.

Matlamat ini sesuai dengan kehendak Bahagian Pendidikan Guru yang ingin

melahirkan guru yang berakhlak mulia, berpandangan progresif,saintifik, menguasai

penggunaan alat teknologi , bersedia menjunjung aspirasi Negara serta warisan

kebudayaan Negara, menjamin perkembangan individu yang sihat dan seterusnya menjadi

masyarakat yang bersatu padu,demokratik, progresif dan berdisiplin.

Bidang pendidikan adalah satu lapangan yang amat luas kajian falsafah. Falsafah

pendidikan membawa maksud satu kajian dan amalan yang menjadi dasar ilmu

kependidikan. Ia juga membahaskan masalah-masalah seperti berikut :

•Insan dan keilmuannya

•Insan ilmu dan alamiah

•Insan, ilmu, alamiah dan ketuhanan

Oleh kerana Islam diterjemahkan sebagai Al Din maka secara tidak langsung ia

mencakupi di akhirat keseluruhan ruang lingkup kehidupan manusia baik di dunia mahupun

di akhirat sesuai dan sejajar dengan maksud falsafah pendidikan islam. Manakala Dasar

Pendidikan Islam untuk melahirkan insan soleh yang kamil, beriman, berilmu,beramal dan

berakhlak.

Pendidikan Islam dari segi falsafahnya bukan sahaja sekadar untuk memperlihatkan

kesempurnaan Islam sebagai satu system hidup yang syumul ( sempurna dan lengkap )

tetapi juga untuk menzahirkan amalan hidup sebenar sebagai seorang muslim yang ada

penghayatan sepenuhnya sebagai hamba Allah di muka bumi ini. Pendidikan Islam yang

telah ditentukan falsafahnya bukan sekadar satu “jisim“ dan “teoritikal“ semata-mata tetapi ia

telah dizahirkan melalui system pendidikan yang unggul pada Zaman Rasulullah SAW .

Kurikulum Pendidikan Islam yang telah dirancang dan diubahsuai dari semasa ke

semasa untuk memantapkan lagi kesan dalaman dan luaran kepada para pelajar yang

menjadi sasaran utama. Isi kandungan Pendidikan Islam digubal adalah berorientasikan

kepada amalan dan penghayatan Islam. Begitu juga strategi penyampaian dan

pembelajaran ,bukan sekadar menyampaikan maklumat atau pengetahuan , metodologi serta

pedagoginya menuju ke arah amalan dan penghayatan Islam yang sebenar.

Guru Pendidikan Islam tidak sahaja berperanan sebagai mualim(pengajar dan

penyampai) tetapi harus juga menjadi seorang naqib,murajjik, contoh teladan diri dan

mursyid

dalam usaha ke arah pembentukan “insan kamil” maka segala perubahan sama ada

terhadap kurikulum, pengajaran dan pembelajaran serta guru itu sendiri hendaklah

berlandaskan kepada asas-asas falsafah dan cita-cita Pendidikan Islam.Tujuan reformasi

dalam Pendidikan Islam mestilah untuk mencapai falsafah Pendididkan Islam. Dasar utama

yang menjadi asas Pendidikan Islam ialah landasan Al Quran dan As Sunnah untuk

mempotensikan seorang insan menjadi muslim yang berilmu pengetahuan, berilmu,beramal

soleh dan berakhlak mulia ke arah melengkapkan diri serta tanggungjawab sebagai hamba

dan khalifah.

BuddhismOn the Life of Buddha, Buddhist Thought & Practice

Buddhism is a moral philosophy / religion based upon the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (566 - 486 B.C.). Siddhartha Gautama became known as the Buddha. 'Buddha' (from the ancient Indian languages of Pali and Sanskrit) means "one who has awakened". It is

derived from the verbal root "budh", meaning "to awaken" or "to be enlightened", and "to comprehend".

The Buddha offered metaphysical knowledge into the nature of reality as well as a moral way of life. The Middle Way is an important idea in Buddhist thought and practice. To seek moderation and avoid the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

At the age of 35, meditating under a Bodhi tree, Siddhartha reached Enlightenment, awakening to the true nature of reality, which is Nirvana (Absolute Truth);

The dustless and stainless Eye of Truth (Dhamma-cakkhu) has arisen. He has seen Truth, has attained Truth, has known Truth, has penetrated into Truth, has crossed over doubt, is without wavering.Thus with right wisdom he sees it as it is (yatha bhutam) ... The Absolute Truth is Nibbana, which is Reality. (Buddha, from the Dhatuvibhanga-sutta (No. 140) of the Majjhima-nikaya)

The Buddha taught that the nature of reality was impermanent and interconnected. We suffer in life because of our desire to transient things. Liberation from suffering may come by training the mind and acting according to the laws of karma (cause and effect) i.e. with right action, good things will come to you. This teaching is known as the Four Noble Truths:

Dukkha: Suffering is everywhereSamudaya: There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or misplaced desire (tanha) rooted in ignorance. Nirodha: There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana (the possibility of liberation exists for everyone). Maggo: There is a path that leads out of suffering, known as the Noble

Eightfold Path (right view, right thought, right speech, right conduct, right vocation, right effort, right attention and right concentration).

The following quotes (from Buddha and others) express some of the main ideas of Buddhism;

I will teach you the Truth and the Path leading to the Truth. (Buddha)

It is proper for you to doubt .. do not go upon report .. do not go upon tradition..do not go upon hearsay..' (Buddha, Kalama Sutra)

O Brahmana, it is just like a mountain river, flowing far and swift, taking everything along with it; there is no moment, no instant, no second when it stops flowing, but it goes on flowing and continuing. So Brahmana, is human life, like a mountain river. (Buddha)

‘Wherefore, brethren, thus must ye train yourselves : Liberation of the will through love will develop, we will often practice it, we will make it vehicle and base, take our stand upon it, store it up, thoroughly set it going.’ (Buddha)

From The Dhammapada;

Not to do any evil, to cultivate the good, to purify one’s mind, this is the Teaching of the Buddhas.

To speak no ill will, to do no harm, to practice self-restraint according to the fundamental precepts, to be moderate in eating, to live in seclusion, to devote oneself to higher consciousness, this is the Teaching of the Buddhas.

By endeavour, diligence, discipline and self-mastery, let the wise person make (of himself) an island that no flood can overwhelm.

All (mental) states have mind as their forerunner, mind is their chief, and they are mind-made. If one speaks or acts with a defiled mind, then suffering follows ..

Hatred is never appeased by hatred in this world; it is appeased by love. This is an eternal Law.

Hard to restrain, unstable is this mind; it flits wherever it lists. Good is it to control the mind. A controlled mind brings happiness.

'All conditioned things are impermanent’, when one sees this in wisdom, then one becomes dispassionate towards the painful. This is the Path to Purity.

Buddhism recognizes that humans have a measure of freedom of moral choice, and Buddhist practice has essentially to do with acquiring the freedom to choose as one ought to choose with truth: that is of acquiring a freedom from the passions and desires that impel us to distraction and poor decisions. (Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught)

Buddhism stands unique in the history of human thought in denying the existence of such a Soul, Self, or Atman. According to the teaching of the Buddha, the idea of self is imaginary, false belief which has no corresponding reality, and it produces harmful thoughts of ‘me’ and ‘mine’, selfish desire, craving, attachment, hatred, ill-will, conceit, pride, egoism, and other defilements, impurities and problems. It is the source of all the troubles in the world from personal conflicts to wars between nations. (Rahula)

The theory of karma is the theory of cause and effect, of action and reaction; it is a natural law, which has nothing to do with the idea of justice or reward and punishment. Every volitional action produces its effects or results. If a good action produces good effects, it is not justice, or reward, meted out by anybody or any power sitting in judgement of your action, but this is in virtue of its own nature, its own law. (Rahula)

For the first time in the history of the world, Buddhism proclaimed a salvation which each individual could gain from him or herself, in this world, during this life, without any least reference to God, or to gods either great or small. (Aldous Huxley)

HinduismOn the Metaphysics & Philosophy of Hinduism Beliefs & Hindu Gods

All is One (Brahman)

The first collection of Indian philosophy that was written down was the Vedas. The word 'Veda' comes from the Sanskrit vid, meaning knowledge - the Vedas are 'sacred knowledge'. Their exact date is controversial, it is possible that the knowledge dates back 10,000 years BC, and were first written around 3,000 BC.

The metaphysical foundation of Hinduism, which is expressed in both the Vedas and the Upanishads is that Reality (Brahman) is One or Absolute, changeless, perfect and eternal. The ordinary human world of many separate and discrete (finite) things (which our mind

represents by our senses) is an illusion. Through meditation and purity of mind, one can experience their true Self which is Brahman, God, the One infinite eternal thing which causes and connects the many things. True enlightenment is Self-realisation, to experience the supreme reality as Self.

The following mantra and quotes express the aspirations of Hinduism religion;

OM Asato ma sadgamaya, tamaso ma jyotirgamaya, mrityor mamritam gamaya " OM Lead me from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."

Though One, Brahman is the cause of the many.Brahman is the unborn (aja) in whom all existing things abide. The One manifests as the many, the formless putting on forms. (Rig Veda)

Behold but One in all things; it is the second that leads you astray. (Kabir)

The word Brahman means growth and is suggestive of life, motion, progress. (Radhakrishnan)

Hindu cosmology is non-dualistic. Everything that is is Brahman. Brahman is the eternal Now, and in eternity there is no before or after, for everything is everywhere, always. To use the words of Pascal 'it is a circle the center of which is everywhere and the circumference nowhere.' (Sudhakar S.D, 1988)

In Indian philosophy, the main terms used by Hindus and Buddhists have dynamic connotations. The word Brahman is derived from the Sanskrit root brih - to grow- and thus suggests a reality which is dynamic and alive. The Upanishads refer to Brahman as 'this unformed, immortal, moving', thus associating it with motion even though it transcends all forms.' The Rig Veda uses another term to express the dynamic character of the universe, the term Rita. This word comes from the root ri- to move. In its phenomenal aspect, the cosmic One is thus intrinsically dynamic, and the apprehension of its dynamic nature is basic to all schools of Eastern mysticism.They all emphasize that the universe has to be grasped dynamically, as it moves, vibrates and dances. ..The Eastern mystics see the universe as an inseparable web, whose interconnections are dynamic and not static. The cosmic web is alive; it moves and grows and changes continually. (Fritjof Capra, 1972.)

In Hinduism, Shiva the Cosmic Dancer, is perhaps the most perfect personification of the dynamic universe. Through his dance, Shiva sustains the manifold phenomena in the world, unifying all things by immersing them in his rhythm and making them participate in the dance - a magnificent image of the dynamic unity of the Universe. (Capra, The Tao of Physics)

TaoismWay of the Tao, Lao Tzu

There is a thing, formless yet complete. Before heaven and earth it existed. Without sound, without substance, it stands alone and unchanging. It is all-pervading and unfailing. We do not know its name, but we call it Tao. .. Being one with nature, the sage is in accord with the Tao. (Lao Tzu)

Taoism is one of the great religions / philosophies of Ancient China (along with Buddhism and Confucianism). In 440 B.C. Taoism was adopted as a state religion of China, with Lao Tzu (so called founder of Taoism) honoured as a deity. Lao Tzu was a contemporary of Confucius and wrote a book called the Tao te Ching, composed some time between the sixth and third centuries B.C. Some people believe Lao Tzu is a mythical character. State support of Taoism ended in 1911 with the end of the Ch'ing Dynasty and much Taoist heritage was destroyed.

Tao (pronounced 'Dao') can be defined as 'path', or 'road'. The way of the Tao is the way of Nature and of ultimate reality. Tao is often described as a force that flows through all life. A happy and virtuous life is one that is in harmony with the Tao, with Nature. The philosophy of Taoism understands Tao as the One Thing which exists and connects the Many things. Tao, Nature, Reality are One.

The following quotes (attributed to Lao Tzu) help us understand the nature of the Tao;

“If people do not revere the Law of Nature, It will inexorably and adversely affect themIf they accept it with knowledge and reverence, It will accommodate them with balance and harmony.”

“There is a thing, formless yet complete.Before heaven and earth it existed.Without sound, without substance, it stands alone and unchanging.It is all-pervading and unfailing.One may think of it as the mother of all beneath Heaven.We do not know its name, but we call it Tao.Deep and still, it seems to have existed forever.”

“The Great Tao flows everywhere.It may go left or right.All things depend on it for life, and it does not turn away from them.It accomplishes its tasks, but does not claim credit for it.It clothes and feeds all things, but does not claim to be master over them.Always without desires, it may be called the Small.All things come to it and it does not master them;it may be called The Great.”

“The Tao that can be told of is not the eternal Tao;the name that can be named is not the eternal name.”

“Hold on to the Tao of old in order to master the things of the present.”

“Being one with Nature, he is in accord with the Tao.Being in accord with the Tao, he is everlasting.”

“Whether it is big or small, many or few, repay hatred with virtue.”

”Manifest plainness, Embrace simplicity, Reduce selfishness, Have few desires.”

“Be still like a mountain and flow like a great river.” (Lao Tzu)

ConfucianismOn the Life of Confucius & the Philosophy of Confucianism

Confucianism is an ethical and philosophical system based upon the teachings of the Chinese sage, Confucius.

Confucius was a famous thinker and social philosopher of China, whose teachings have deeply influenced East Asia for centuries. Living in the Spring and Autumn period (a time when feudal states fought against each other), he was convinced of his ability to restore the world's order, though failed. After much travelling around China to promote his ideas among rulers, he eventually

became involved in teaching disciples. His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, and justice and sincerity. Used since then as the imperial orthodoxy, Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a vast and complete philosophical system known in the west as Confucianism.

The Analects is a short collection of his discussions with disciples, compiled posthumously. These contain an overview of his teachings. Confucius presents himself as a transmitter who invented nothing and his greatest emphasis may be on study, the Chinese character that opens the book. In this respect, he is seen by Chinese people as the Greatest Master. Far from trying to build a systematic theory of life and society, he wanted his disciples to think deeply for themselves and relentlessly study the outside world. For almost two thousand years, Analects had also been the fundamental course of study for any Chinese scholar, for a man was not considered morally upright or enlightened if he did not study Confucius' works.

Based upon http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius

The following quotes from The Analects demonstrate the simplicity and wisdom of Confucianism;

“ Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles.”

“ I am not one who was born in the possession of knowledge; I am one who is fond of antiquity, and earnest in seeking it there.”

“ Everything has its beauty but not everyone sees it.”

“ Forget injuries, never forget kindnesses.”

“ Men's natures are alike, it is their habits that carry them far apart.”

“ Respect yourself and others will respect you.”

“ Study the past if you would define the future.”

“ To see what is right, and not to do it, is want of courage or of principle.”

“ What the superior man seeks is in himself; what the small man seeks is in others.”

“ When anger rises, think of the consequences.”

“ When we see men of a contrary character, we should turn inwards and examine ourselves.”

“ Wheresoever you go, go with all your heart.”

“ They must often change who would be constant in happiness or wisdom.”

“ Fine words and an insinuating appearance are seldom associated with true virtue.”

“ Have no friends not equal to yourself.”

Falsafah Pendidikan Timur

Konfusianisme•Berasas daripada pemikiran :Confucius (551-479 SM)Mengzi (372-289 SM)Xunzi (313-238 SM)Hanyu (768-824 SM)

Dari pandangan tokoh-tokoh pendidikan konfusianisme, ramai di antara mereka berpendapat peranan utama pendidikan ialah membina tingkah laku manusia supaya menjadi orang yang berakhlak mulia, mengikut peraturan serta taat dan cinta kepada pemerintah dan negara.

Confucius

•Tokoh pendidik dan Ahli Falsafah•Menegaskan bahawa pendidikan adalah proses untuk kesempurnaan tingkah laku manusia dan ini boleh dicapai melalui amalan tingkah laku.•Ia penting untuk membawa kestabilan, kesejahteraan dan keharmonian kehidupan.•Pelajar perlu menghafal Buku Syair, Buku Sejarah, Buku Elemen, Buku Upacara dan Buku Annals.•Murid diajar mengikut kebolehannya.

Chenghao (1032-1085), Chengyi (1033-1107) dan Zhuxi (1130-1200)

•Memperkenalkan unsur rasionalisme dalam falsafah pendidikan konfusianisme.•Untuk mendapatkan ilmu sebenar, pelajar perlu menggabungkan pemikiran rasional dengan mentalnya.

Wang Shouren (1472-1528)

•Berpendapat bahawa pelajar perlu menggunakan ilmu intuitif yang berada dalam jiwa mentalnya untuk mengkaji perkara-perkara alam sekitar.

•Menentang menghukum kanak-kanak dengan mengurung dan mendera sebagai pendekatan pengajaran.

Sehingga tahun 1911, aliran fahaman konfusianisme menjadi falsafah pendidikan yang berpengaruh di dalam pendidikan di negeri China. Sejak 1911,masa koumintang mengambil alih tempat pemerintah,falsafah pendidikan Barat mula mempengaruhi sistem pendidikan China.Hushi (1891-1962),memperkenalkan idea-idea pragmatisme dan progresivisme dalam kurikulum sekolah negeri China,menyarankan kaedah induktif digunakan untuk tatabahasa dan mengutarakan pendekatan “Berani membentuk hipotesis,berhati mencari bukti”. Juga menyarankan mata pelajaran kemanusiaan dengan sains supaya mengembangkan potensi individu secara keseluruhan.

Nasionalisme dan Internasionalisme

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)• Ahli falsafah dan penyair dari India.•Proses bertujuan untuk melahirkan manusia yang berfikiran sempurna.•Pendidikan harus menjadi proses yang hidup.•Pendidikan Tagore banyak dipengaruhi oleh falsafah pragmatisme dan progresivisme.

Sharifah Alwiah Alsagoff

•Buku Falsafah Pendidikan (1984), menyenaraikan idea-idea penting yang terkandung dalam falsafah pendidikan Rabindranath Tagore untuk membentuk kesempurnaan manusia seperti itu :q Pendidikan tubuh badanq Pendidikan Intelekq Pendidikan kerohanianq Pendidikan realistikq Pendidikan harus hidup dan dinamikqPendidikan dalam perkara-perkara semula jadiq Pendidikan untuk rasionalisme yang tulenq Pendidikan untuk internasionalismeq Pendidikan untuk perkembangan individuq Pendidikan untuk perkhidmatan sosial dan kecekapan.

Philosophy of Education

What is a philosophy of education, and why should it be important to you? Behind every school and every teacher is a set of related beliefs--a philosophy of education--that influences what and how students are taught. A philosophy of education represents answers to questions about the purpose of schooling, a teacher's role, and what should be taught and by what methods.

How do teacher-centered philosophies of education differ from student-centered philosophies of education? Teacher-centered philosophies tend to be more authoritarian and conservative, and emphasize the values and knowledge that have survived through time. The major teacher-centered philosophies of education are essentialism and perennialism. Student-centered philosophies are more focused on individual needs, contemporary relevance, and preparing students for a changing future. School is seen as an institution that works with youth to improve society or help students realize their individuality. Progressivism, social reconstructionism, and existentialism place the learner at the center of the educational process: Students and teachers work together on determining what should be learned and how best to learn it.

What are some major philosophies of education in the United States today? Essentialism focuses on teaching the essential elements of academic and moral knowledge. Essentialists urge that schools get back to the basics; they believe in a strong core curriculum and high academic standards. Perennialism focuses on the universal truths that have withstood the test of time. Perennialists urge that students read the Great Books and develop their understanding of the philosophical concepts that underlie human knowledge. Progressivism is based largely on the belief that lessons must be relevant to the students in order for them to learn. The curriculum of a progressivist school is built around the personal experiences, interests, and needs of the students. Social reconstructionists separated from progressivism because they desired more direct and immediate attention to societal ills. They are interested in combining study and social action, and believe that education can and should go hand in hand with ameliorating social problems. Existentialism is derived from a powerful belief in human free will, and the need for individuals to shape their own futures. Students in existentialist classrooms control their own education. Students are encouraged to understand and appreciate their uniqueness and to assume responsibility for their actions.

How are these philosophies reflected in school practices? Essentialism and perennialism give teachers the power to choose the curriculum, organize the school day, and construct classroom activities. The curriculum reinforces a predominantly Western

heritage while viewing the students as vessels to be filled and disciplined in the proven strategies of the past. Essentialists focus on cultural literacy, while perennialists work from the Great Books. Progressivism, social reconstructionism, and existentialism view the learner as the central focus of classroom activities. Working with student interests and needs, teachers serve as guides and facilitators in assisting students to reach their goals. The emphasis is on the future, and on preparing students to be independent-thinking adults. Progressivists strive for relevant, hands-on learning. Social reconstructionists want students to actively work to improve society. Existentialists give students complete freedom, and complete responsibility, with regard to their education.

What are some of the psychological and cultural factors influencing education? Constructivism has its roots in cognitive psychology, and is based on the idea that people construct their understanding of the world. Constructivist teachers gauge a student's prior knowledge, then carefully orchestrate cues, classroom activities, and penetrating questions to push students to higher levels of understanding. B. F. Skinner advocated behaviorism as an effective teaching strategy. According to Skinner, rewards motivate students to learn material even if they do not fully understand why it will have value in their futures. Behavior modification is a system of gradually lessening extrinsic rewards. The practices and beliefs of peoples in other parts of the world, such as informal and oral education, offer useful insights for enhancing our own educational practices, but they are insights too rarely considered, much less implemented.

What were the contributions of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle to Western philosophy, and how are their legacies reflected in education today? Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are the three most legendary ancient Greek philosophers. Socrates is hailed today as the personification of wisdom and the philosophical life. He gave rise to what is now called the Socratic method, in which the teacher repeatedly questions students to help them clarify their own deepest thoughts. Plato, Socrates's pupil, crafted eloquent dialogues that present different philosophical positions on a number of profound questions. Plato believed that a realm of externally existing"ideas," or"forms," underlies the physical world. Aristotle, Plato's pupil, was remarkable for the breadth as well as the depth of his knowledge. He provided a synthesis of Plato's belief in the universal, spiritual forms and a scientist's belief in the physical world we observe through our senses. He taught that the virtuous life consists of controlling desires by reason and by choosing the moderate path between extremes.

How do metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, aesthetics, and logic factor into a philosophy of education? Metaphysics deals with the nature of reality, its origin, and its structure. Metaphysical beliefs are reflected in curricular choices: Should we study the natural world, or focus on spiritual or ideal forms? Epistemology examines the nature and origin of human knowledge. Epistemological beliefs influence teaching methods."How we know" is closely related to how we learn and therefore, how we should teach. Ethics is the study of what is"good" or"bad" in human behavior, thoughts, and feelings. What should we teach about"good" and"bad," and should we teach that directly, or by modeling? Political philosophy analyzes how past and present societies are arranged and governed and proposes ways to create better societies in the future. How will a classroom be organized, and what will that say about who wields power? How will social institutions and national governments be analyzed? Aesthetics is concerned with the nature of beauty. What is of worth? What works are deemed of value to be studied or emulated?

Western and Eastern Philosophy

I. Western Philosophy

Western philosophy first came about when a philosopher named Thales, who was born in approximately

585 B.C., became the first man to think outside the box and sway away from using myths and gods as

the answer for all intellectual questions. Known as the first Greek philosopher, Thales initiated a way of

understanding the world that was based on reason and nature (Sullivan). Once he revealed this whole

new way of philosophizing, Western philosophy was born. There are many different subjects that

Western philosophy covers, including logic, natural philosophy, ethics, poietics, and metaphysics.

Philosophy can be described as the certain knowledge of things through their ultimate causes seen in the

light of the principles of reason (Sullivan).

Western philosophy consists of expanding the mind and exercising the intellect. It differs from other

types of philosophy because it is the only type that analyzes things to such a certain extreme. For

example, under Western philosophy, the very question of "what is beauty?" is brought up under the

subject of poietics. While a normal human being living today would not really think twice about what is

beautiful, Western philosophers such as St. Thomas Aquinas suggest that "the beautiful can be reduced

to the good, nevertheless it differs from it in concept. It is a special kind of good Ц that which pleases on

being apprehended" and he continues to go on and discuss the concept of both good and beauty

(Sullivan).

Not only are things such as beauty philosophized about, but also things such as truth, what it is, and if

we as people can actually know truth. The study of truth is what makes up epistemology, a category of

the subject Metaphysics. Philosophers known as skeptics argue that humans can never know truth, while

those in opposition believe that evidence is the decisive factor in determining truth ("Tomlin"). Questions

such as these are what separates Western philosophy from other philosophies. Western philosophy takes

all subjects and puts them in their most general and broadest aspect, questioning everything about it

and its existence ("Philosophy").

After the father of Western philosophy, Thales, came Socrates, another legendary philosopher. Socrates

passed his knowledge onto Plato, who opened an Academy for philosophy and was responsible for

teaching the great philosopher Aristotle. All three of these men are accountable for many of the

philosophies that are still held today, such as Plato's Cave Theory, which shows how ignorance can

control oneself for the worse. Plato's philosophy of the Divided Line was groundbreaking and led to such

theories as AristotleТs philosophy of form and matter, which attempts to explain the reasoning of why

things are what they are, for example, why a chair is called a chair and what the chair is made up of

(Stumpf). The ideas that these men were coming up with were unprecedented.

In conclusion, Western philosophy sets itself apart from all other philosophies because it has veered

away from using myths and gods as explanations for all things that can be questioned, thanks impart to

Thales. Because of this, under the ways of Western philosophy there are no conclusive answers for most

questions, just more questions. Though it provides for wonderful mental exercise, Western philosophy

falls short as an investigation of existence ("Philosophy").

II. Eastern Philosophy - Taoism

An example of an Eastern philosophy is Taoism, a Chinese philosophical system. Under Taoism, the

followers of the system are taught answers as to why things are the way they are and they abide by and

believe in those answers. Taoism is based on the belief that Tao is the eternal reality and source of all

existence. The goal of each follower's life is to avoid earthly things and to live in harmony with the Tao

and with nature in hopes of achieving immortality. Under Taoism, everything is basically one despite

physical differences, which gives things a different appearance ("Philosophy"). Because all is one,

matters of good and evil and of true or false can only arise when people lose sight of the oneness and

think that their private beliefs are absolutely true.

This differs from Western philosophy in the fact that Western philosophy would question the existence of

such a thing that could be the source of all existence and be eternal reality. Many Western philosophers

made different arguments as to what the source of all existence is but because Western philosophy has

more of a scientific base rather than a mythological base, no answer can be concluded without proper

evidence. Taoists believe that good moral conduct is rewarded with health and long life, while bad

conduct results in disease, death, and suffering in the afterlife ("Philosophy"). In opposition, a Western

philosopher would question what exactly good moral conduct is and what justifies good and bad.

Taoism is unfortunately characterized frequently in terms of femininity, quietism and spirituality, a

principle embraced by humble and religious people such as artists, loners, and religious fanatics.

III. Change and Permanence

The problem of change has been around for many, many years, dating back to the conflicts of Heraclitus

and Paramenides, two pre-Socratic philosophers who had disagreeing views on change. Heraclitus, who

was born in 535 B.C., believed that everything was changing at all times while his counterpart

Paramenides, born in 510 B.C., believed that change was absurd and could never happen (Sullivan).

After these two had held such stances in extreme opposition to each other regarding change, Aristotle,

born in 384 B.C., came along and presented a new way of describing change without taking such an

extreme position. All three philosophers argue very well-thought-out and believable points but it is

Aristotle who makes the most sense with his theories.

Change was the key to the universe for Heraclitus, who was known as the philosopher of change. He

believed that everything in the world, including the world itself, was in a state of flux at all times and is

noted for stating that "you can never walk into the same river twice" because in fact while all rivers are

in flux, no river could ever remain the same from moment to moment (Sullivan). While a river is just one

example used, the same could be said for any other object under Heraclitus' theory. All materials are in a

constant state of decay, which makes them change from moment to moment, and while plants, animals,

and humans grow or become old, we are constantly changing at any given time. Heraclitus even went so

far as to say that if a thing is changing from one moment to the next then in the very act of naming it, it

is changing; therefore, no thing could ever be named (Sullivan).

In complete contradiction to Heraclitus, Paramenides believed that the notion of change is absurd and

that there is no such thing as change, it is merely an illusion (Sullivan). Paramenides looked at things

from a broader aspect and believed that things should be looked at for what they really are, not what

they appear to be. He believed that the one thing that all things have in common is that they exist,

which makes them being. His theory stated that if everything that is is a being, then the only way for

change to occur is for something to go from being to non-being, or from non-being to being. If something

is being, it can never become non-being, and if something is non-being, it can never become being,

because something cannot turn into nothing and something cannot come from nothing (Sullivan).

Paramenides believe that the senses were to blame for depicting change and it was simply just a false

appearance.

Change seemed to only have these two beliefs behind it until Aristotle came around years later and

brought about a new view on the problem of change and permanence. He presented the world with his

theory of act and potency, which states that the full reality of any being is what it actually is plus its

potential ways of being (Cohen). He brings this into the question of change stating that change to one

thing can be found in the potency of that thing and what it is able to become (Tomlin). Aristotle defines

change as "the actuality of the potential as such", and believes that change is neither potency nor act

but something that can be found in between (Sullivan).

In Aristotle's view, the form of the thing which is changing will always remain the same, regardless of the

change in physical appearance (Cohen). For example, as a human gets older, the body begins to wrinkle

and show signs of aging. Aristotle recognizes the physical change but still understands that the form has

not changed, for it is still a human being. Under this example, Heraclitus would not recognize the form of

the human and state that the body is changing at all times and cannot be named, for it is in a constant

state of flux. Paramenides on the other hand would argue that there is no change occurring to the body

because a human being is a human being, regardless of the physical change that takes place. In

conclusion, the age long debate of change and permanence, and "what is change?" still exists, but

because of the revolutionary philosophies laid down by the ancient philosophers like Heraclitus,

Paramenides, and Aristotle, we have a much broader and more precise view as to what exactly change is

even though, under Western philosophy, no specific answer may ever be found.